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scale-up is to consider and integrate technical challenges at low TRLs. Above TRL 5, it is critical to think in terms of industry value chains including both technology providers and potential end users and to consider present and future stakeholders. Testbeds, which are sites that provide infras- tructure for demonstration of processes ranging from TRL 5-8, are useful to facilitate scale-up of chemical processes in general. Successful testbeds focus on a well-defined class of technologies and bring together upstream and downstream stakeholders from industry with academia and applied research institutions. Below, the state of the art of various electrochemical processes of interest is examined in more detail. 9.2.1 Water electrolysis to produce hydrogen Hydrogen production via the electrolysis of water (Section 1) is a key bridge between renewable electricity and synthesis of commodity chemicals and fuels such as ammonia, methane, and methanol (see Sections 3, 4, and 5). Water electrolysis is currently performed at the industrial scale, but improvements are needed to realize plants that are compatible with utility scale photovoltaic and wind farms (100+ MW) while remaining economically viable. Alkaline water electrolysis (AWE) is a mature technology and the basis of industrial plants with capacities of the order 100 MW. The state of the art AWE stack size is approximately 2.5 MW with lifetimes greater than 40,000 hours. Because of the technology’s maturity, efforts to improve AWE are primarily focused on total plant optimization to minimize the balance of plant cost. While the improvement of electrocatalysis for AWE is a highly active field of research, new academic findings have had limited impact on the electrodes used in commercial plants. Other early stage ideas relevant for scale-up focus on completely new engineering concepts such as operation at high temperature/pressure and usage of anion exchange membranes. Proton exchange membrane water electrolysis (PEMWE) provides advantages over AWE by reducing ohmic resistance and allowing for pressurized operation. System sizes are at the 10 MW size, with stack sizes of 2.5 MW and lifetimes of more than 40,000 hours. A significant obstacle to further scale-up is the scarcity of iridium, which is used in the electrocatalyst at the anode. Alternative materials that are both catalytically active and stable in an acidic environment remain elusive despite significant research efforts; hence the remaining options are to significantly reduce iridium loadings (by a factor of 50; see Section 1) or develop and introduce anion-conducting membranes to obviate the need for stability under acidic conditions. Additional challenges for scale-up of PEMWE result from the lack of multiscale modelling tools at the cell and stack level and automated production technologies. High temperature solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC) based systems have smaller system sizes on the scale of 100 Nm3/h with stack sizes on the order of 1-3 Nm3/h and lifetimes of more than 10,000 hours. The efficiency of SOEC technology benefits from operating at higher temperatures 92PDF Image | sustainable production of fuels and chemicals
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