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where both the thermodynamics and kinetics of water splitting are improved, and these systems are especially attractive when waste heat sources are used to bring the system to the operating temperature. Because of the small stack size and modularity of SOEC systems, there are particular needs for automated production technologies and better multiscale modeling tools at the cell and stack level to determine the optimal design for industrial-scale plants. 9.2.2 Electrochemical synthesis of organic products Conceptually suitable feedstocks for the sustainable production of all organic compounds used by society today include CO2, biomass, and plastic waste. Plastic waste is currently not considered as frequently as CO2 and biomass because of competing effective thermochemical recycling approaches based on existing technology. Organic products can be generally classified into fine chemicals, commodity chemicals or fuels, according to their market volume. Electrochemical processes that produce compounds with smaller market volumes are naturally at higher TRLs, because they can be industrially deployed at a smaller scale, require less complex integration with upstream and downstream processes, and typically have higher margins resulting in easier economics even in a difficult market environment. Industry sees the development of technologies for the production of fine chemicals, commodity chemicals, and fuels as consecutive steps in scaling up electrochemical production of organic compounds, as comparable process technology is used that can be the basis for the next step in scale-up (Figure 9.1). In the case of using a given process technology as a basis for scale-up to target a larger market size (e.g. CO2 to CO switching target from fine chemical to commodity market), the corresponding TRL is logically reduced in the new context (e.g. from TRL 8-9 to 5-6), as the plant size has to be scaled-up again for commercial application. Fine chemicals are already produced electrochemically on the kilogram scale economically in the pharmaceutical industry where production volume is low, requiring minimal scale-up, and product margins are high. Other processes for fine chemical production that are currently being scaled up industrially include low-temperature conversion of CO2 to CO for use in laboratories (TRL 5-6), glucose to sorbitol (TRL 4), and acetonitrile synthesis. Chlorine and aluminum are inorganic commodity chemicals historically and still today pro- duced via electrochemical processes, because of their difficult accessibility via thermochemical pro- cesses. This showcases the feasibility of large scale electrochemical production of commodity chem- icals. Promising electrochemical processes for the production of organic commodity chemicals are currently being developed industrially for the conversion of CO2 to CO at both low temperature via aqueous electrolyte electrolyzers (5 kW, TRL 5-6) and high temperature via SOECs (TRL 8-9) for low volume industrial applications (e.g. for phosgene, polycarbonates, polyurethane, iso- cyanates production). Production of light organic molecules from CO2 (e.g. formic acid, methanol, 93PDF Image | sustainable production of fuels and chemicals
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