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Figure 10.1: Simplified illustration of technology chains considered in this Section and their impact on carbon pools in the atmosphere and in the geosphere. biomass growth and stores it in the subsurface (dark grey arrow pointing downwards). In this case, if biomass is used as the input, heat and power can be generated before CO2 capture and storage (BECCS, Bio-Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage), whereas if ambient air is used as the input, only the environmental service of removing CO2 from the atmosphere is fulfilled (DACCS, Direct Air Capture with Carbon Storage), which requires a C-free energy input. BECCS and DACCS yield net-negative CO2 emissions (NET, Negative Emissions Technologies), of which IPCC experts project a cumulative need of 100 to 1000 Gt between now and 2100 based on today’s CO2 emissions, which are 35-40 Gt/y. The two chains in the middle of Figure 10.1 are compatible with a net-zero-CO2-emissions scenario. In the third chain, labeled CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage), fuels and chemicals are produced using fossil carbon and the resultant CO2 is captured either directly from point sources (blue line around the red box) or after emission to the atmosphere and finally stored underground. Such systems exist today in the form of commercial technologies. In the second chain, labeled CCU (Carbon Capture and Utilization), CO2is extracted from the atmosphere via DAC or biomass and converted into fuels and chemicals by emerging technologies such as those covered in Sections 2, 3, and 4. This type of cycle is also illustrated in Figure 2 of the introduction. Upgrading CO2 requires significant energy input, which may come in the form of electricity, heat, or hydrogen, and must ultimately be derived from renewable (C-free) sources. Note that among the four schemes only the CCU system realizes a closed cycle of carbon atoms. While this system technically satisfies the definition of sustainable given above, care must be taken in evaluating the sustainability of those technologies that are necessary to provide large amounts of C-free energy, specifically their reliance on scarce materials and minerals.[4] 10.2 State of the art and scientific challenges At the core of CO2 extraction is the CO2 capture process, where a separation technology produces a high purity CO2 stream from a CO2-containing gas stream. Depending on the overarching application, e.g. power plant, steel or cement manufacturing, there exists a plurality of possible 101PDF Image | sustainable production of fuels and chemicals
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