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• Technologies disconnected from the power grid, e.g. photocatalytic H2 production and CO2 and N2 reduction. This would address issues of discrepancy between the production cost of RES and market price of electricity. 11.4.4 Fostering strong research collaborations with academia To facilitate the development of the aforementioned breakthrough technologies, a strong link be- tween industry and academia through all stages of development is paramount. In particular, it is crucial to ensure that researchers have a good understanding of the economic targets from the outset. However, working with universities and research institutes should not only be limited to breakthrough technologies. In the short term, new front-end technologies like water electrolysis can be further developed to sustainably produce H2, which can then be coupled to conventional downstream processes. In the long term, entirely new Power-to-X processes can be designed and developed as well. 11.4.5 Ensuring good LCA practices as prerequisites to any developments or demonstrations Realizing a circular economy will require closing the utilization loop not only for carbon utilization, but for all raw materials (see Section 12). In this context, Life Cycle Assessments (LCA) are of special importance to ensure the permanent removal of CO2 from the atmosphere, prevent additional fossil CO2 from entering the atmosphere, and protect the use of water and other critical raw materials. It is especially important to focus on adequate systems boundaries that cover the whole life cycle of the applied technology, consumed goods, or services. Ideally, these would be “cradle to cradle” (i.e. infinite recycling or circular economy) for Power-to-X and “cradle to grave” for CO2 removal. CO2 removal must be independently verified through the development of measuring, monitoring, and verification measures. 11.4.6 Encouraging regulatory action It is important to note that the fuel, chemical, and fertilizer industries feature high volumes and high capital investments, and the total project life cycle for typical plants is on the order of decades. Early adopters need to be rewarded so that bigger volumes can be reached and economies of scale developed. This implies that legislation should be introduced to support defossilization and carbon recycling, not only for fuels, such as in the Renewable Energy Directive (RED II) [15], but also for chemicals and fertilizers. While imposing a CO2 tax may help facilitate the economic viability of RES, other promising strategies include (i) enforcing Power-to-X blending quotas (i.e. setting a minimum percentage of Power-to-X products that must be used as fuels or chemical feedstocks in 116PDF Image | sustainable production of fuels and chemicals
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