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Dowson and Styring CO2 Butanol FigUre 2 | Comparison of total carbon in global CO2 emissions compared to carbon atoms contained in major liquid fuels and the theoretical collective commodity chemicals shown in Figure 1. 2015 Figures used (Dudley, 2015). process in terms of emissions relies on observing the emissions avoided by the use of such a fuel. Since the CDU fuel itself may be seen as carbon neutral, provided all carbon atoms contained within the liquid fuel come from emission CO2 and no further emissions are generated in production, upon combustion useful work is extracted without the use of new fossil carbon. In the extreme scenario where all major liquid fuels are synthesized from CO2, the result is that road, water, and air vehicles essen- tially become indirectly powered by renewable electricity. By using synthetic fuels of this kind, it is possible to still use liquid fuel combustion engines and the existing fuels infrastructure. Thus, a 23% reduction/utilization of total emissions could be theoretically achieved (Mobility, 2015). Furthermore, with the large shift in the energy-generation sector toward renewable and lower carbon energy sources, this figure will rise as the total relative share of the emissions from the transport sector grows. It should be noted that other than widespread vehicle electri- fication, which is strongly limited for long-distance haulage, shipping and air-travel, or dramatic societal change, CDU fuels production represents one of the few potential strategies able to reduce transportation carbon emissions in the short-term future. Furthermore, it is the only strategy that may offer such reductions in transport emissions without significant disrup- tion or onerous infrastructure redevelopment in the short and medium term, provided the CDU fuels are drop-in replacements for existing fossil analogs. Unlike certain commodity or fine chemicals that can be generated from CO2 without significant energy input, such as polyurethane foams, fuels synthesis by definition requires a large energy input, naturally exceeding the combustion energy of the resulting product. Furthermore, the energy must necessarily be renewable or low carbon and as cheap as possible. In this respect, the conversion of CO2 into fuel may be better considered as an energy-vectoring strategy to balance electricity demand and supply as increasing amounts of renewable energy capacity is installed worldwide. Spot negative energy prices, once very rare, are now becoming more frequent even in large economies like Germany, Australia, UK, and parts of the United States (Martinez-Anido et al., 2016). Furthermore, renewable energy curtailment has grown dramatically. Germany, for example, has had to dramatically increase curtailment of renewable energy supplies in recent years, with over 1.5 GWh of renewable energy curtailed in 2014 (Morris, 2015). This wasted energy alone (not including a much larger amount of ultra-low and negative cost energy generated that year) would have been sufficient energy to produce approximately 50,000–80,000 l of CDU-gasoline, assum- ing the overall energy efficiency of the conversion of electricity to chemical energy in the fuel to be 30–50% with respect to the combustion energy density of petrol. Although this amount is relatively small in terms of the German liquid fuel market, with nearly 15,000 TWh per year of additional renewable energy expected to be produced worldwide by 2035, production of CDU fuels may be an important tool to balance periods of low demand and high generation in certain areas (BP Statistics, 2015; International Energy Agency, 2016). It should be noted that even if a high-efficiency pathway to transform CO2 into a liquid fuel can be developed and deployed, the overall use of the energy will have poor efficiency due to the limitations of the combustion engines that use these fuels. Furthermore, since liquid fuels are relatively cheap per liter, if a competitive economic price is desired, the CDU fuel pathway would only be viable when energy prices are very low. Although Frontiers in Energy Research | www.frontiersin.org 3 October 2017 | Volume 5 | Article 26PDF Image | Demonstration of CO2 Conversion to Synthetic Transport Fuel
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