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Dowson and Styring CO2 Butanol for a sufficient period of time, and this must be achieved at a reasonable cost. For CCS, the overall storage capacity and intended storage time are potentially sufficient with estimates of total storage capacity exceeding 10 Tt, corresponding to centu- ries of current-level emissions (IEA, 2009). However, achieving this storage at practical cost is the major challenge facing CCS worldwide, with the exception of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) operations which have questionable total climate impacts given carbon footprint of the CO2 released on use of the additional oil that is produced (Jaramillo et al., 2009). While a handful of geological storage CCS projects without EOR have been initi- ated, and more are planned, these typically operate where high concentrations of CO2 are available (reducing capture/purifica- tion costs) or are reliant on significant government support or subsidy (Global CCS Institute, 2016). In the case of CO2-EOR and CO2 utilization, there is an additional complicating factor that storage is not long term as 92% of the recovered oil will be burned through combustion, with a similar fate for some, but not all of the utilization products. Therefore, perhaps a better way to look at CO2 utilization is not through the mitigation potential of waste, but in the use of CO2 as a valuable C-1 resource. The latter approach, therefore, considers the utilization as avoiding new fossil carbon entering the supply chain and so indirectly reduces new emissions by mitigation and avoidance (von der Assen and Bardow, 2014). The carbon dioxide is converted for the production of chemicals with higher economic value, which results in a much more favorable immediate economic case than that with CCS. The resulting added-value from the CO2 ideally offsets some or all of the processing costs. This leaves CDU at a decided advantage over CCS in terms of economics, with several commercial pro- cesses based on CDU already in operation worldwide (Langanke et al., 2014; Gunning and Hills, 2015; Styring et al., 2015). However, even with indirect effects included, the maxi- mum amount of CO2 that may be utilized remains very small compared to total emissions. For example, if the entire global annual production of ethylene, the most widely manufactured commodity chemical containing carbon atoms, was carried out using carbon sourced exclusively from CO2, this would result in direct utilization of less than 1.5% of total global CO2 emis- sions (Stratas Advisors, 2016; Olivier et al., 2017). Even with other commodity chemicals included and assumptions made of indirect mitigation, theoretical utilization could represent only a small proportion of total emissions (Figure 1). Naturally, this further neglects the fact that direct conversion of CO2 into hydrocarbons, and especially aromatics, are not likely to become commercial processes in the near future. It should be noted that while this demonstrates that CDU may only have minor or limited impact on total emissions miti- gation, even when imagining a hypothetical sustainable route for the production of the most common commodity chemicals from CO2, profitable CDU processes may provide finance for CCS initiatives, thus offsetting further public or governmental costs (Hendricks et al., 2013). However, if CDU is only consid- ered in isolation from CCS, other potential products in which to sink the emitted carbon must be made to allow for substantial reductions in CO2 emissions. In this context, the only carbon- containing materials that are used on sufficient scale for CDU to impact on total emissions are fuels themselves (Figure 2). lOW-carBOn FUels FrOM carBOn DiOXiDe In the case of CDU-derived fuels, which re-release the CO2 that was initially trapped when they are combusted, the efficacy of the FigUre 1 | Comparison of total carbon in global CO2 emissions compared to carbon atoms contained in five major carbon-containing commodity chemicals, avoiding derivatives such as ethylene oxide. 2015 figures used (Levdikova, 2014; Yennigallla, 2015; Heffer and Prud’homme, 2015; Coombs, 2016). Frontiers in Energy Research | www.frontiersin.org 2 October 2017 | Volume 5 | Article 26PDF Image | Demonstration of CO2 Conversion to Synthetic Transport Fuel
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