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Chapter 1. Introduction 2 use and economics of the entire fuel production system. At the beginning of each small-scale study, the potential impact on the full system is described, tying each study to the big picture. The progressive re-focusing of scope and scale is illustrated in Figure 1-1. Following is a brief overview of the chapters of this thesis. Then in the following sections, to provide background for electrolysis cell technology, an introduction to electrolysis and electrochemical energy conversion is given, followed by a brief overview of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), one of the most-used analytical techniques in this thesis. Other experimental techniques that were used are also discussed. Chapter 2 examines the many energy carriers that could replace petroleum-derived hydrocarbon fuels. These include other hydrocarbons like coal-to-liquids and biofuels, other chemical energy carriers like hydrogen and ammonia, and storage of electricity on-board vehicles in batteries, ultracapacitors, and flywheels. Any energy carrier can carry energy from any energy source (fossil carbon, nuclear, biomass, and solar, wind, and other renewable energy sources). The pathways from the various energy sources to energy carriers are examined in terms of their relative sustainability and practicality if implemented at a large scale. This study of global scale energy flows sets the context for hydrocarbons produced by recycling CO2. CO2 recycling yields an especially interesting energy carrier – sustainable energy sources like solar and wind power can be used to provide the most energy-dense, convenient fuels which can be readily used in the existing infrastructure. Chapter 3 examines the various possible technological pathways that could be taken to recycle CO2 into hydrocarbon fuels using renewable or nuclear energy. The state-of-the-art enabling technologies at each stage of the pathway (CO2 capture, H2O and CO2 dissociation, and fuel synthesis) are critically reviewed. Methods of dissociation include heat, electricity, and sunlight driven methods – thermolysis, thermochemical loops, electrolysis, and photoelectrolysis. Capturing CO2 from the atmosphere using a solid sorbent, electrolyzing H2O and CO2 in high temperature solid oxide cells to yield a mixture of H2 and CO (syngas), and producing gasoline or diesel from the syngas in a catalytic reactor (e.g. Fischer-Tropsch) is identified as one of the most promising, feasible routes. High temperature electrolysis makes efficient use of electricity and heat and provides high reaction rates, and integrates well with fuel synthesis, enabling use of part of the waste heat and further improving the efficiency of the system. An analysis of the economics and energy balance for this process is presented, based on the experimental results of Chapter 4. The potential of the process is assessed, in terms of what technological progress is needed to achieve large-scale, economically competitive production of sustainable fuels by this method. Opportunities are discussed for fuel production using inexpensive, intermittent renewable energy (e.g. surplus wind power, or solar arrays built in remote, sunny locations such as deserts) and constant-supply power sources such as hydroelectric, geothermal, and nuclear. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 present three experimental studies of electrolysis of CO2 and H2O using solid oxide cells. The studies were made at different scales – at the cell level, electrodePDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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