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Chapter 2. Replacing Petroleum with Sustainable Energy Carriers 22 similarly to fossil fuels using thermochemical processes, similarly yielding hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and electricity. With CCS, biohydrogen and electricity could even be carbon negative. However, biomass may be less sustainable than fossil fuels at the necessary scale. First, biomass needs one to two orders of magnitude more land than other energy sources to provide a given amount of energy. Even with fertilizer-intensive agriculture, the yield of biomass per land area is very low, capturing less than 1% of incident solar energy [22]. The maximum observed efficiency for non-agricultural grasses, near the theoretical limit of photosynthetic biomass, is around 4% [23]. Then, only the above-ground part of the biomass is harvested, part of that is utilized in a conversion process, and the conversion process consumes energy as well. This results in an actual fuel ethanol efficiency from solar energy, using corn and sugarcane feedstocks, of around 0.16-0.24% [22]. Today’s biodiesel has even lower yields. Solar electric and solar thermal devices are two orders of magnitude more efficient at converting sunlight into usable energy. Diverting the entire current corn harvest to ethanol would supply about 12% of current U.S. gasoline consumption [4]. Already, 33% of the US corn crop was used to produce fuel ethanol in 2009, up from 23% in 2007 – the fraction has been steadily increasing for the last decade [24]. The Energy Policy Act 2005 called for a further doubling of ethanol production by 2012, which would then supply around 2% of petroleum-based transportation energy [2, 25]. To fully replace U.S. gasoline today with corn ethanol would require at least 700 million hectares, roughly 90% of the total contiguous U.S. land area and four times the current agricultural land [26]. Sugarcane needs about half the amount of fertile land, when grown in Brazil. Land area would still be a constraint even if similar yields were possible in the U.S. Switchgrass and other bioenergy crops used in advanced biofuels processes, which utilize a greater fraction of the above ground plant matter, still would not improve yields [27]. On the other hand, the use of bio-wastes and residues do not use additional land—but they can meet only a small fraction of fuel demand. Unless advances are made in developing algae—which needs far less land and does not need fertile land for its aquatic cultivation [28]—as an affordable fuel feedstock, biomass cannot scale up to meet demand and replace petroleum. Although most of the above numbers pertain to liquid biofuels, the arguments hold for the other bioenergy products. Then, there are significant environmental and societal impacts resulting from how that land is used. To maximize yields, crop farmers use the kind of intensive agriculture practices that have enhanced sugarcane yields in Brazil more than 2.5 times what they were in 1979 [22]. Yields are maximized via usage of fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides, which take energy to produce and are detrimental to the environment and human health if used at large scales [29]. Corn ethanol in particular is fertilizer and pesticide intensive [4, 30]. Apart from water pollution by runoff of these chemicals, water resources are also affected by using water for irrigation and for refinery operation [31, 32], and many times more water may end up being consumed than in current gasoline production ([11, 33]). Monoculturing from widespread use of an individualPDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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