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Chapter 2. Replacing Petroleum with Sustainable Energy Carriers 32 2.5. Hybrids,ElectricityandHydrocarbons In hybrid configurations, energy carriers might be combined in a fuel cycle that has the strengths of each, offering greater sustainability and practicality. Electricity-based energy carriers can co-power a vehicle along with hydrocarbons or hydrogen. Such hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have recently entered and gained popularity in the market. The small battery in today’s standard HEV, which is charged by the engine and by regenerative braking, drives an electric motor during low power demand. Above a certain power demand threshold, the diesel or gasoline engine takes over. This also allows for a smaller, reduced power engine which operates more often in its range of highest efficiency while the electric motor handles the variable speeds during starting, stopping and idling. HEVs consume about 30% less fuel on average, with the bulk of those savings during low-power city driving [104]. More than one drive-train can be present in a vehicle, in a parallel or series configuration. The HEV described above uses a dual parallel drive-train. A vehicle that features a larger battery pack which drives the electric motor for longer distances and allows the consumer to charge the batteries by plugging into an electric outlet is known as a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). In the series configuration in new demonstration models for PHEVs, an engine serves to only charge the batteries which drive an electric motor [80]. Acting as an electric generator and without needing to handle power transients, the engine can run at near constant load near its peak efficiency. PHEVs seem to work well with the driving habits of U.S. drivers. The average daily driving distance in the U.S. is about 33 miles [69]. The battery capacity can be designed to minimize size and weight while also maximizing the portion of vehicle propulsion provided electrically. On average, 31-39% of annual miles are the first 20 miles of daily driving and 63- 74% are the first 60 miles [105]. In other words, the batteries in a PHEV-20 (20-mile electric- only range) and PHEV-60 can supply about one-third and two-thirds of the propulsion energy, respectively [106], or potentially more [54, 107]. The batteries in a PHEV-20 and -60 would account for about 4% and 11% respectively of the total vehicle weight [26]. This is much more feasible than powering a vehicle with a full 200-300 mile electric range, in which the batteries make up a large fraction of the total vehicle weight (discussed earlier). However, PHEV batteries are likely to be cycled more fully than batteries in HEVs and all-electrics. To ensure a sufficient cycle life at this high DOD, the battery must be carefully sized and have a good controls system. PHEVs reduce hydrocarbon fuel demand, thereby reducing the amount of CO2 that must be captured from the air and sequestered (in the case of fossil fuels) or recycled via biomass (in the case of biofuels). They enable a gradual transition to more sustainable fuel cycles. In the near term, petroleum fuel consumption is reduced by the one-third to two-thirds. Even when powered by today’s coal or natural gas and accounting for electricity grid losses, the efficiency of generating the electricity, storing it in a battery and then providing vehicle propulsion is much higher than the gasoline ICE, reducing net GHG emissions significantlyPDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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