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Chapter 3. Sustainable Hydrocarbon Fuels by Recycling CO2 with Renewable/Nuclear Energy 50 capture site, the fossil resource, and the CO2 storage site must all be located at the same site or materials must be transported between sites, whereas the Figure 3-2c pathway enables independent placement of the air-capture device at any appropriate CO2 storage site. Since the pathway does not actually need CO2 as a feedstock, it does not fall under the ―fuels produced by recycling CO2‖ scope. Neither of these carbon-neutral fossil fuel based pathways are materially closed cycles, but they are useful to consider in defining the scope of CO2-recycled fuels. In the following sections the work on individual stages of the cycle is reviewed, including greater detail about the individual stages of the full cycle work reviewed above. 3.2.1. Collection of H2O and CO2 Large-scale implementation of any pathway will use large quantities of water. The only sustainable source will be non-potable water such as sea water. To supply the quantity of water needed for dissociation (to provide the hydrogen atoms that get incorporated into the fuel), the cost of desalination will add very little to the synthetic gasoline end product cost – desalinated water is typically produced for less than USD$1/m3 [41] which corresponds to only a small fraction of 1 U.S. cent per gal or L of synthetic gasoline. However, water consumption generally can far exceed the water amounts that are needed to provide the hydrogen atoms that get incorporated into the fuel. The required quality of this additional water will depend on the specific processes used. In any case, even if significant quantities of fresh water are needed, it is unlikely that the cost of desalination will make up a significant fraction of the total cost of fuel production. Another proposed source of H2O is the atmosphere [28]. While perhaps an unnecessary and expensive effort, combined with air-capture of CO2, both feedstocks would then be extracted from the air, enabling a highly location-independent process. CO2 is routinely captured from large industrial plants. The various methods have been reviewed elsewhere [42]. Apart from industrial plants, another non-atmospheric CO2 source is geothermal vents. Geothermal power plants therefore release this stored CO2. In Iceland there is interest in managing these CO2 emissions— including interest in recycling them into fuel [43]. Removing CO2 from air was first studied in the 1940s by Spector and Dodge using an alkaline absorbent as a means to obtain CO2-free air [44]. The use of alkaline chemical absorbents has dominated the work done in scrubbing the air to obtain concentrated CO2. Metal hydroxides such as KOH, Ca(OH)2, and NaOH readily react with CO2 to form carbonates. Typically hydroxide solutions have been used or proposed [4, 7, 9-11, 16, 18, 19, 33, 45-55], and the reaction proceeds as follows: CO2 + 2OH– CO32– + H2OPDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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