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Chapter 3. Sustainable Hydrocarbon Fuels by Recycling CO2 with Renewable/Nuclear Energy 68 from open circuit to –0.16 A/cm2 (Chapter 4 and [37]). In recent studies of co-electrolysis of H2O and CO2 including the one presented in Chapter 4, the ASR was in between that of H2O and CO2 electrolysis [35-38]. The long-term durability of SOECs has been a topic of recent studies [37-39, 168, 174- 179]. At least at lower current densities, the cells were found to have sufficient durability for co- electrolysis of H2O and CO2 (see Chapter 4 and [37, 38]). However, at higher current densities, the cells degrade significantly faster (see Chapter 4). Durable high current density operation will be desirable and perhaps necessary for an economical process, based on the economics discussion above (see also section 3.3.2). Therefore, further work in improving the durability may be necessary. The instability of the Ni-based electrode when exposed to an oxidizing atmosphere is also an issue that may need resolution before large-scale commercial use of these cells. With current cells, it would be necessary to ensure that the Ni-based electrode of each cell is always kept in a reducing atmosphere through all gas supply interruptions and unexpected incidents during operation, e.g., the cell would require a fail-safe gas recirculation system. However, depending on the cell construction [191-193] and the temperature at which an oxidation event occurs [194, 195], the performance of cells with Ni-based negative electrodes may be largely unaffected through tens of such events. Alternatively, electrodes based on ceramic materials that exhibit higher stability through reduction-oxidation (redox) cycles and similarly high electrocatalytic activity as Ni-based electrodes have been developed and demonstrated in small-scale cells [159, 196-198]. If this type of redox-stable electrode can be integrated into a full-scale commercial cell, replacement of the Ni-YSZ electrode with this type of alternative electrode would likely be the preferred solution to this issue. While higher temperature operation enables greater fuel production rates, it can result in performance degradation by damaging the electrode structures via sintering and agglomeration as well as putting strain on the cell interconnect, housing and other materials that make up the balance of system components. Lower temperature operation disadvantageously increases the thermodynamic electrical energy demand and requires more electrical energy per unit fuel produced (slower kinetics), but also enables the survival of optimized microstructures and nanoparticles (which promote faster kinetics) against sintering and agglomeration, thereby potentially evening out the cell performance. Lower temperature also retards Ni oxidation, potentially improving the stability of the Ni electrode, as mentioned above. Therefore, there is likely an optimal operating temperature for a given cell based on its materials, construction and performance. The estimated investment cost of a solid oxide cell stack per unit of electrode area is about the same as that estimated for low-temperature alkaline and advanced alkaline electrolyzer stacks at large-scale mass production [90, 103, 199-201], and the H2/CO production rate is much higher, leading to a lower capital cost. Solid oxide cells clearly offer both the lowest capital cost and the lowest operating cost. Furthermore, since solid oxide electrolysis cells canPDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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