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Chapter 3. Sustainable Hydrocarbon Fuels by Recycling CO2 with Renewable/Nuclear Energy 81 storage for managing intermittent electricity sources like solar and wind, as an alternative to (or in cooperation with) other means of storage such as in batteries or compressed air energy storage. Excess supply could be used for transportation fuel production by CO2 recycling. In such a scenario, since the cells would be operated in fuel cell mode in addition to electrolysis mode, the capacity factor of the cells would be higher than for cells dedicated to electrolysis only, which could improve the economics. In discussing the economics of synthetic hydrocarbons, one study concluded that ―only under exceptional circumstances would one form of secondary energy (electricity) be converted to another (hydrogen)‖ [40]. However, one should make a clear distinction between primary electric energy and secondary electric energy. The latter is produced (e.g. from fossil fuel) in order to satisfy customer demand. The former is the result of physical constraints and it is delivered whenever the system (e.g. the photovoltaic panel or wind turbine) is ready to produce electricity. Clearly, secondary electricity is far more valuable than primary electricity. Primary electricity can be converted to whatever form of energy is more valuable than itself. So the circumstances under which electricity would be converted to fuel need not be exceptional: the value of chemical fuels need only be greater than the value of carbon-neutral electricity. Today, this is already the case in some locations. Iceland is one example, as mentioned above. In Norway, another country with an abundance of renewable energy sources, the pre-tax price of diesel fuel is about twice the pre-tax price of electricity on an energy equivalent basisx [242]. These are circumstances in which the CO2-recycled fuel process might be first implemented – where economic viability is closest to being within reach. In the long term, as renewable and nuclear energy sources scale up and other countries become renewably powered like Iceland and Norway, as gas prices rise, and as the technologies involved in the CO2 recycling process are improved, the circumstances will become more and more common and the economics of the synthetic fuel process will become more favorable. Since CO2-recycled synthetic fuels are environmentally friendly (potentially moreso than biofuels), they might go to market without the same level of taxation as gasoline in some countries. This would give these clean fuels an advantage as they would be competing against the post-tax price of gasoline rather than the wholesale price. A price on CO2 emissions would likely further improve the economic competitiveness of CO2-based synthetic fuels. Finally, the potentially greater sustainability of CO2-recycled fuels over fossil or biomass derived fuels, as x Regarding the use of pre-tax prices: Although the end-user post-taxation price of liquid fuels is higher than that of electricity in most parts of the world, liquid fuels are more heavily taxed than electricity, so one must compare the pre-tax prices [242]. Regarding energy equivalence: $0.03/kWh is equivalent to $1.10/gal or $0.29/L gasoline based on an energy density of 34.5 MJ per L gasoline. Energy-equivalent prices are based on an ideal energy conversion – if one could simply turn electrical energy into hydrocarbon fuel without paying anything (energy, equipment, etc) for the conversion. Based on the cost estimates shown in Figure 3-7, one can see that the conversion might add from $0.45/gal to $2.85/gal ($0.12 to $0.75/L) depending on the technologies.PDF Image | Electrolysis of CO2 and H2O
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