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combustion and reduces carbon monoxide emissions ("Energy Explained," 2015). Pure gasoline has an oxygen content of around zero, compared to the oxygen content of ethanol at 36% and butanol around 22%. The second fuel property, octane rating, is the measure of temperature and pressure needed to ignite a fuel/air mixture ("Energy Explained," 2015). High octane fuels prevent premature ignition which can damage the engine. Ethanol has the highest octane rating of 112.5 to 114 while gasoline and butanol have comparable ratings of 85 to 94 and 87 respectively. In addition to ethanol’s two superior properties listed above, ethanol is less toxic to humans and other species than butanol ("Energy Explained," 2015). Although there are some advantages to using ethanol as a fuel, there are also advantages to using butanol. Reid Vapor Pressure is the minimum vapor pressure to start a cold engine. Butanol has the lowest Reid Vapor Pressure when compared to gasoline and ethanol, which means it is the most difficult type of fuel to start a cold engine with. However, the lower vapor pressure of butanol reduces the amount of harmful pollutants, such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), released by the fuel. Scientists use two measures of heating value to measure the amount of heat energy a fuel released when a fuel is combusted; higher heating value (HHV) and lower heating value (LHV). LHV is more commonly used by scientists because it excludes the amount of heat value released to vaporize water, which cannot be utilized by common engines ("Energy Explained," 2015). As noted in Figure 2.2, gasoline has the highest LHV followed by butanol which has 86% of the LHV of gasoline and ethanol with only 65%. Butanol’s superior LHV would cause the monetary value of butanol to be higher than that of ethanol. In todays market, fossil fuels dominate the transportation fuel industry ("How we use energy ", 2015). Therefore, switching from petroleum and gasoline to biofuels will not occur overnight. Because of this, mixing biofuels with traditional liquid fossil fuels has been a common practice (Earley & McKeown, 2009). Currently ethanol is the most common biofuel additive to gasoline (Earley & McKeown, 2009). However, butanol-gasoline mixtures have a few advantages when compared to ethanol-gasoline mixtures. First, a standard vehicle engine, with no modifications, can combust any percent mixture of butanol-gasoline ("Energy Explained," 2015). On the other hand, ethanol-gasoline mixtures can only be used in standard vehicle engines when the ethanol percent is 15% or lower 15PDF Image | Extraction of Bio-Butanol using Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
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