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costs are relatively insensitive to scale. This makes them ideal candidates for diverse applications where they can be matched to meet specific load requirements. The systems are unobtrusive, with very low noise levels and negligible air emissions. These qualities enable them to be placed close to the source of power demand. Fuel cells also offer higher efficiencies than conventional plants. The efficiencies can be enhanced by using the quality waste heat derived from the fuel cell reactions for combined heat and power and combined-cycle applications. Phosphoric acid fuel cells have successfully been commercialized. Second generation fuel cells include solid oxide fuel cells and molten carbonate fuel cells. Research is ongoing in areas such as fuel options and new ceramic materials. Different manufacturing techniques are also being sought to help reduce capital costs. Proton exchange membrane fuel cells are still in the development and testing phase. 1.8.3 VehicleMotivePower Since the late 1980s, there has been a strong push to develop fuel cells for use in light-duty and heavy-duty vehicle propulsion. A major drive for this development is the need for clean, effi- cient cars, trucks, and buses that operate on conventional fuels (gasoline, diesel), as well as renewable and alternative fuels (hydrogen, methanol, ethanol, natural gas, and other hydro- carbons). With hydrogen as the on-board fuel, these would be zero-emission vehicles. With on- board fuels other than hydrogen, the fuel cell systems would use an appropriate fuel processor to convert the fuel to hydrogen, yielding vehicle power trains with very low acid gas emissions and high efficiencies. Further, such vehicles offer the advantages of electric drive and low maintenance because of few moving parts. This development is being sponsored by various governments in North America, Europe, and Japan, as well as by major automobile manufacturers worldwide. As of May 1998, several fuel cell-powered cars, vans, and buses operating on hydrogen and methanol have been demonstrated. In the early 1970s, K. Kordesch modified a 1961 Austin A-40 two-door, four-passenger sedan to an air-hydrogen fuel cell/battery hybrid car (23). This vehicle used a 6-kW alkaline fuel cell in conjunction with lead acid batteries, and operated on hydrogen carried in compressed gas cylinders mounted on the roof. The car was operated on public roads for three years and about 21,000 km. In 1994 and 1995, H-Power (Belleville, New Jersey) headed a team that built three PAFC/battery hybrid transit buses (24,25). These 9 meter (30 foot), 25 seat (with space for two wheel chairs) buses used a 50 kW fuel cell and a 100 kW, 180 amp-hour nickel cadmium battery. The major activity in transportation fuel cell development has focused on the polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC). In 1993, Ballard Power Systems (Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada) demonstrated a 10 m (32 foot) light-duty transit bus with a 120 kW fuel cell system, followed by a 200 kW, 12 meter (40 foot) heavy-duty transit bus in 1995 (26). These buses use no traction batteries. They operate on compressed hydrogen as the on-board fuel. In 1997, Ballard provided 205 kW (275 HP) PEFC units for a small fleet of hydrogen-fueled, full-size transit buses for demonstrations in Chicago, Illinois, and Vancouver, British Columbia. Working in collaboration with Ballard, Daimler-Benz built a series of PEFC-powered vehicles, ranging from passenger 1-22PDF Image | Fuel Cell Handbook (Seventh Edition)
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