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Energies 2020, 13, 420 10 of 96 Tapia et al. [136] propose a thermal design and experimental test for a multi-tubular solar reactor (see Figure 4d). The solar radiation enters inside the semi-cylindrical cavity and is absorbed by the alumina tubes in which the ferrite pellets involved in the thermochemical cycle are placed. Furler and Steinfeld [137] propose a dynamic numerical model and test a cavity receiver with a circular quartz window containing a cylinder of reticulated porous ceramic foam made of ceria to develop novel reactor design and configuration to improve energy-to-fuel conversion efficiency. Also, rotary-type solar reactors have been researched and tested for water-splitting thermochemical cycles. Kaneko et al. [138] manufacture a solar reactor with a beam-down quartz optics that has a cylindrical rotor and dual cells for discharging O2 and for splitting H2O. The rotor is coated with reactive ceramics (CeO2 and Ni, Mn-ferrite). By the rotational movement of the rotor, each fraction of the reactive ceramics is reduced in the O2 releasing cell and split water in the other cell by the rotation. Argon gas is injected to both cells to carry out the gaseous products. Schunk et al. [139] propose and test reactor prototypes that consist of a multilayer cylindrical rotary cavity receiver made of ZnO tiles placed on a ceramic structure and ZnO particles. The rotation of the rotor forces the oxide particles to the edge of the reactor where they are exposed to solar irradiation. ZnO operates as a radiant absorber, a chemical reactant and a thermal insulator and argon gas is added to protect the quartz window from condensed zinc. Diver et al. [140] propose a two-step solar-driven thermochemical reactor based on iron and ferrite oxide. The reactor is realized with a stack of several counter-rotating rings with fins that contain reactive metal oxide. During the reactor rotation, the reactive material pass through the irradiated zone where is reduced. On the opposite side, water splitting occurs. The oxidized ferrite materials enter into the recuperation zone in which they heat up while the neighboring fins move in the opposite direction cool down. Finally, the Center for Research and Technology Hellas in Thessaloniki proposes a perovskite redox membrane reactor for the isothermal and continuous production of high purity hydrogen. The reactor consists of two compartments separated by the membrane. Water vapor is introduced in the oxidizing side and is split, producing hydrogen and oxygen. Oxygen ions diffuse in the membrane lattice and are desorbed in the opposite membrane side. To enhance the desorption process, an oxidable agent could be introduced [141]. 2.2.2. Technology Readiness Level Water direct thermolysis and thermochemical cycles are researched mostly at the laboratory scale, but only a few processes have been tested in all steps, with integrated experimental demonstration cycle closure. Direct thermolysis is unlikely in the near term due to the high temperature requirement and the need to separate products after the reaction process [115]. However, recently, several pilot and demonstration plants concerning two-step and three-step thermochemical cycles have been developed worldwide. A 4 kWth solar reactor prototype (TRL 4–5) has been tested at ETH’s high-flux solar simulator facilities to experimentally validate the numerical model proposed by Furler and Steinfeld for the heat and mass transfer computational simulation of a cavity receiver containing a reticulated porous ceramic foam made of ceria (see Figure 4c) [137]. The international collaboration of Japan and Australia in Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APP) project have carried out a test operation of the Tokyo Tech solar rotary-reactor using the solar concentration technology of National Solar Energy Centre at Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO). The power input is 50 kWth from the solar concentrator system with 10 heliostats and two-step water-splitting thermochemical cycle with reactive ceramics of ceria-based solid solution is performed in a beam-down rotary-reactor [142]. In the framework of the SolH2 project (an INNPACTO initiative of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness), a 100 kWth multi-tubular reactor proposed by Tapia et al. [136] has been built and tested in the SSPS-CRS facility of the Plataforma Solar de Almería (PSA) to demonstrate the technological feasibility of solar ferrite thermochemical water-splitting cycles [143].PDF Image | Green Synthetic Fuels
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