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Energies 2020, 13, 420 11 of 96 A demonstration plant with a thermal input of 100 kWth for the water thermal dissociation based on ZnO was designed and tested at the large-scale solar concentrating facility of PROMES-CNRS (PROcédés, Matériaux et Énergie Solaire-National Centre for Scientific Research) MegaWatt Solar Furnace (see Figure 4a) [144,145]. This project followed the previous 10 kWth pilot plant of a rotary cavity receiver experimentally demonstrated at PSI’s High-Flux Solar Simulator by Schunk et al. [139]. Within the EU-funded project, the HYDROSOL Plant has been developed and implemented an industrial-scale plant of a two-step thermochemical cycle with a temperature up to 1400 ◦C. A plant on a solar tower of the PSA has been built with monolithic reactors based on the fixed coated ceramics reactor proposed by DLR researchers [133]. A plant with a thermal input of 100 kWth (HYDROSOL and HYDROSOL-II) and with two ceramic multi-channeled monolithic honeycomb reactors coated with nickel-ferrite reactive species was previously realized [146,147]. In 2016, this plant was scaled-up to 750 kWth (HYDROSOL-3D) using three monolithic reactors with a foam structure wholly made of nickel-ferrite powders to overcome the problem with the coating of ceramic (see Figure 4b) [148]. For the commercialization of water-splitting thermochemical reactors, further research is needed to develop competitive thermochemical plants. The research should focus on reactor materials resistant to high temperature, thermal shock and chemical corrosion, on quenching processes of products and on the separation of reactants (e.g., in S–I cycles). Moreover, further development of solar concentration technologies is needed to enhance the total conversion efficiency that ranges between 35% and 50% and to reduce concentrator cost that contributes to approximately a half of the total capital cost of Etnheergpiesla2n02t0[,9123,1x4F9O]R. PEER REVIEW 11 of 95 Figure 4. (a) Rotary cavity receiver of the demonstration plant for ZnO dissociation at PROMES-CNRS Figure 4. (a) Rotary cavity receiver of the demonstration plant for ZnO dissociation at PROMES-CNRS (PROcédés, Matériaux et Énergie Solaire-National Centre for Scientific Research) furnace. Reprinted (PROcédés, Matériaux et Énergie Solaire-National Centre for Scientific Research) furnace. Reprinted with permission from [145]; (b) Monolithic reactor with a foam structure (HYDROSOL-HYDROgen with permission from [145]; (b) Monolithic reactor with a foam structure (HYDROSOL-HYDROgen production in a SOLar monolithic reactor-project). Reprinted with permission from [148]; (c) cavity production in a SOLar monolithic reactor-project). Reprinted with permission from [148]; (c) cavity receiver containing a reticulated porous ceramic foam made of ceria (ETH furnace). Reprinted with receiver containing a reticulated porous ceramic foam made of ceria (ETH furnace). Reprinted with permission from [137]; (d) multi-tubular solar thermochemical reactor in a 50 kWth plant for methane permission from [137]; (d) multi-tubular solar thermochemical reactor in a 50 kWth plant for methane dissociation. Reprinted with permission from [150]. dissociation. Reprinted with permission from [150]. 3. Power-to-Gas Routes Electrochemical processes convert water into hydrogen and oxygen, exploiting an external circuit that transfers the photogenerated electrons or electricity provided by renewable sources (photovoltaic, wind, geothermal, hydroelectric).PDF Image | Green Synthetic Fuels
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