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Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 95 generated by photovoltaic devices that are connected to the PEC cell external circuit [316]. Instead, the internal bias configuration involves a layered, stacked or hybrid structure that establishes a tandem cell. The internal-biased devices are fabricated by photoelectrode/photoelectrode (PEC/PEC) or photoelectrode/photovoltaic (PEC/PV) or photovoltaic/photovoltaic (PV/PV) coupled devices Energies 2020, 13, 420 27 of 96 [317]. Figure 12. (a) Theoretical maximum solar-to-hydrogen efficiency and photocurrent density as a function Figure 12. (a) Theoretical maximum solar-to-hydrogen efficiency and photocurrent density as a of semiconductor bandgap under irradiation of AM (Air Mass) 1.5 G (1000 W/m2). Reproduced with function of semiconductor bandgap under irradiation of AM (Air Mass) 1.5 G (1000 W/m2). permission from [309]. (b) Reported electrochemical current density as a function of solar-to-hydrogen Reproduced with permission from [309]. (b) Reported electrochemical current density as a function efficiency. The shape of the points shows the device configuration, the fill color shows the type of of solar-to-hydrogen efficiency. The shape of the points shows the device configuration, the fill color material used, and the boundary color shows the type of catalyst material. Reprinted with permission shows the type of material used, and the boundary color shows the type of catalyst material. from [304]. Reprinted with permission from [304]. A dual-absorber tandem system could be utilised to overcome the need for an external bias 3.2.1. Photocatalysts required when the PEC overpotential is not enough for the overall water splitting, or the rate of Photocatalysts are typically realized with semiconductor materials, and the technical the reaction is not sufficient. The auxiliary bias can be external, including photovoltaic cell bias and requirements are [318]: dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) or internal. In the external biased configuration, a photocurrent is generated by•phAotobvrolatdaicspdeecvtriaclesrathnagteafroercloignhntecatbesdortpottiohne P(tEhCe cbealnldegxateprnranl gciercsuhiotu[3ld16s]p. rIenasdtead, are [318]: • • between 1.8 and 2.2 eV); the internal bias configuration involves a layered, stacked or hybrid structure that establishes a • Proper valence and conduction band energy level in function of the redox potential tandem cell. The internal-biased devices are fabricated by photoelectrode/photoelectrode (PEC/PEC) 3.2.1. Photoc•atalyEsftfesctive charge and mass transport and long carrier diffusion length; of water splitting; or photoelectrode/photovoltaic (PEC/PV) or photovoltaic/photovoltaic (PV/PV) coupled devices [317]. • Effective electron–hole pairs separation; • High chemical, electrochemical and photoelectrochemical stability; Photocatalysts are typically realized with semiconductor materials, and the technical requirements • Low cost and environmentally friendly. High bandgap semiconductors are commonly TiO2, WO3, SrTiO3, BaTiO3, SnO2 and ZnO, while A broad spectral range for light absorption (the bandgap range should spread between 1.8 and small bandgap semiconductors are Si, GaAs, InP, CdTe, CdSe and CuO. The bandgap of Fe3O4 and 2.2 eV); BiVO4 is at an intermediate level [319]. Proper valence and conduction band energy level in function of the redox potential of High bandgap semiconductors, due to the wide bandgap, absorb only ultraviolet light that corrwesaptoerndspsltiottaintgig;htrangeofthesolarirradiationspectrum.TiO2isthesemiconductormostwidely •reseEaffrcehcetdivfeoerlpehctortonca–thaolylestpaapirpslisceaptiaorna.tTiohne;high bandgap reduces the solar-to-hydrogen efficiency • Effective charge and mass transport and long carrier diffusion length; • High chemical, electrochemical and photoelectrochemical stability; • Low cost and environmentally friendly. High bandgap semiconductors are commonly TiO2, WO3, SrTiO3, BaTiO3, SnO2 and ZnO, while small bandgap semiconductors are Si, GaAs, InP, CdTe, CdSe and CuO. The bandgap of Fe3O4 and BiVO4 is at an intermediate level [319].PDF Image | Green Synthetic Fuels
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