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Energies 2020, 13, 420 26 of 96 Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 25 of 95 Figure 11. Basic principle of overall water splitting, pointing out the energy levels of bandgap and Figure 11. Basic principle of overall water splitting, pointing out the energy levels of bandgap and water oxidation/reduction potential. Reprinted with permission from [308]. water oxidation/reduction potential. Reprinted with permission from [308]. The solar energy conversion effifficiency of photocatalytic water-splitting reactions depends on light absorption, charge separation and transfer, recombination processes and electrocatalytic activity of the semiconductor anode [309]. The solar-to-hydrogen (STH) conversion efffificiency is defifined as the ratio of the chemical energy of hydrogen generated to the solar energy input and is a function of semiconductor bandgap [303]. In Figure 12a is displayed the theoretical maximum efffificiency for a varietyooffsesmemiciocnodnudcutcotromramteartiearlisa,ltsh,etuhpepueprpliemritlifmoritafsoinrgalesminagtleeriamlaretearcihaelsr1e6a%chweshe1n6%thewbhaenndgtahpe ibsanedagra2p.0iseVne[a3r092]..0AeVta[n3d0e9m].Aphtoatnodeelemctrpohcohteomelieccatlrodcehveimceicaoludldevreicaechcotuhledmreaaxcimhuthmetmheaoxriemtiucmal ethffiecoireenticcyalofef2f9ic.7ie%ncwyitohf a29b.a7n%dgwaipthoaf 1b.6a0ndeVgaapnodf01.9.650eeVVfoarntdhe0.p9h5oetVoafnoordteheanpdhtohtoeapnhoodteocanthdotdhe, rpehsopteocctaivtheolyde[3,1re0s]p.eNctoivwelayd[a3y1s0,].tNheowhiagdhaeysst,SthTeHhiegffihecsietnScTyHrefpfiocriteendcyisre1p9o.3r%tedfoisr1a9.m3%ulftoi-rjuanmcutilotin- GjuanActsi/oGnaIGnaAAss/A/GlIanIPnApsh/oAtolIcnaPthpohdoetdoceavtihceo,dwehdoesveicme,axwimhousme mthaexoirmetuicmaltShTeHoreffiticaielnScTyHise2f2fi.c8i%en[c3y11i]s. 22.8%Re[3co1m1].bination reactions occur between electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence −9 bandRoefcothmebsinematioconnrdeuactoior.nsTohcecurercobmetwbieneantioenlectitmroensofinchtahregecocnadrruiecrtisonis boanntdheanodrdheroloefs 1in0 thse, −8 −3 −9 wvahlernecaesbchanemdiocfalthreascetimonicsoanrdeuslcotowre.rT(h1e0re–c1o0mbisn)a[3ti1o2n].tTimhehoifgchhbaargnedgcaprroiefrseimsiocnonthdeucotrodremraotfe1r0ial −8 −3 (sB,GwhoefrTeiaOschisem3.2iceaVlr)eraecqtuioinressasrheosrltowaevre(l1e0ng–t1h0stos)be[3a1c2t]i.vTahted.hiTghebreafnodrge,aponolyfstehmeiuclotnradvuicotloert rmegaitoerni,alw(hBiGchorfepTrieOs2enists34.2%eoVf)threqsuoilraers sspheocrttruwmavaeclteivnagtehs tthoe bpehoatcoticvaatatelyds.tT[h31e3re].foMre,oroenolvyert,hae suelvtrearveiroelsetrircetigoinonis, rwelhaitcehd troepthresdeenctasy4o%f pohfotohelescotlraorchsepmecictraul meffiaccietnivcaytedsuethteo photodceagtarlaydsatti[o3n13o]f. eMleocrterodvers,uarfasecevseraendrecsotrircotsioionni[s30r9e]l.ated to the decay of photoelectrochemical efficiency due to photoFduejigshraimdatiaondoHf eolnedctaro[3d1e4s],uirnfa1c9e7s2a,nfidrsctodreromsoionnst[r3a0t9e]d. hydrogen generation dissociating water inapFhuojtiosheliemctaroacnhdeHmoicnadlace[l3l.14T]h,einy1m9a7n2u,fiarcstudredmaonsetlreacterodchyedmriocgalencegllewneitrhataioTniOdispsohcoitaot-ienlgecwtraotdeer 2 3+ aindaaphlaotioneulemctrcocuhnetmeri-cealleccterolld.eT.hTeoyenmhanucfeatchtuerdedecoamnpeolescitironchoefmwiacatelrcFeellwioitnhswaeTrieOa2dpdhedottoo- 3+ tehlecctraothdoedaenadnad pthlaetirneuacmtiocnournateri-neclerecatrsoeds.e.InTothenlhaastndcectahdeed, erecosemarpcohsiftoiocunsoefs wonatehreFsetruicotnusrewaenrde padrodpeedrttieostohfesecmathicodneduacntdorthpehorteoacattiaolnysrtasteanidncorneatshes.coInfitghuerlaatsiotndoecfapdheo,toreslecatrrcohchfoemcuisceasl coenllst.he strucRtuercentalyn,d Tepmrobpheurtrinees eotf als.em[3i0c4o]ndpurcotpoorsephaotpohcaotaoleylsetcstroacnhdemoicnal tdheviceontfhigautraotpioenrateosf upnhdoteorecleocntrcoecnhtreamteicdalsocelallrs.irradiation with thermal integration and mass transport optimization. TheyRmecaennutflyac,tTuermeabhtruirpnle-jeutnaclt.io[3n0c4e]llpbroapseodseonaIpIhI–oVtoceolemctprocuhnedmsipcahlodtoe-vaibcseotrhbaetroapnedraIrteRsuuOnxd-Pert ecloencctreonctaratatelydsts.oTlahreimrraxdiimatuiomnSwTiHtheffithceiremnacyl ionbtteagirnaetdioins1a7n.d12%mathssattirsanloswpoertoonplytimthiaznatihoen.reTchoerdy emffiacniuefnacytureacahetdripblye-jtuhnectdiounal-cjuelnlctbiaosnedGaoAns/IGIIa–IVnAcso/AmlpInoPu.nTdhsepohpoetora-atibosnorubnerdearncdonIcrRenutOraxt-ePdt seolelactrroircratdailaytsito.nThredmucaexsimcousmt oSfThHyderfofigcieencpyrodbutacitnioend(i~s117.$1/2k%gHthaPtEisCloawnder~o4n$ly/ktghHan wthiethrescolradr 22 ceoffnicientcryatrioeanc[h3e1d5]b).y the dual-junction GaAs/GaInAs/AlInP. The operation under concentrated solar irradiation reduces cost of hydrogen production (~11 $/kgH2 PEC and ~4 $/kgH2 with solar concentration [315]). A dual-absorber tandem system could be utilised to overcome the need for an external bias required when the PEC overpotential is not enough for the overall water splitting, or the rate of the reaction is not sufficient. The auxiliary bias can be external, including photovoltaic cell bias and dye- sensitized solar cell (DSSC) or internal. In the external biased configuration, a photocurrent is 2PDF Image | Green Synthetic Fuels
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