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Energies 2020, 13, 420 33 of 96 issues [430]. Few pilot plants (10) with an installed capacity in the kWel range have been realized, and the operation of two other plants is planned for 2020. Among these, the power level of only two operational pilot plants is above 100 kWel. The German-based Sunfire GmbH in partnership with Boeing Network & Space Systems develops the commercial reversible electrolysis module that is in operation at a US Navy microgrid test facility in California. In electrolysis mode, the maximum capacity is 150 kWel with a system yield of 42 m3/h of hydrogen and efficiency up to 85%. The delivered power by fuel cell mode is 50 kWel, and the efficiency is 60% [431]. The GrinHy project funded by the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) has realized in Germany a 120 kWel pilot plant of high temperature electrolysis stack, able to operate in reverse as a fuel cell. The plant is coupled with a steel production industry to recover the heat generated [432]. Nordic Blue Crude AS, Sunfire GmbH, Climeworks and EDL Anlagenbau have planned to start the construction of the first commercial plant with 20 MWel installed capacity in Norway in 2020. Annual production of 8000 tons of synthetic Blue Crude was estimated. Blue Crude consist of liquid fuel of various hydrocarbons comparable to crude oil [433]. Microbial Electrolysis Cells MEC still are mainly researched at the laboratory scale, but also some pilot-scale devices have been developed to validate the MEC utilization in the real industry [434]. The employment of microbial electrolysis cells fed with domestic wastewater is the most researched application. Escapa et al. [435] review many laboratory, semi-pilot and pilot-scale experiments. The capacity of a typical laboratory-scale electrolyzer is up to 1 L. In 2010, Rader and Logan [436] scaled the capacity of a MEC device up to 2.5 L, utilizing 8 separate electrode pairs in a multiple-electrode design. In 2011, Cusick et al. [437] demonstrated the operation in a continuous flow of a 1000 L microbial electrolysis reactor. The cell was set-up with 144 electrode pairs in 24 modules. In the large-scale plant, critical issues were found in the initial processes of inoculation and enrichment, and the methanation of most of the hydrogen produced. Heidrich et al. [438] installed a 120 L microbial electrolysis cell for the treatment of domestic wastewater matter for three months. Afterwards, Heidrich et al. [439] tested a pilot-scale 100 L microbial reactor for the treatment of raw domestic wastewater at ambient temperature. The trial was one year long and demonstrated the durability and robustness of microbial devices under realistic conditions. Finally, in 2018, Cotterill et al. [440] developed and tested two pilot-scale MECs fed by domestic wastewater with continuous flow for over six months. One MEC was fabricated with ten separate modules placed in a tank of 135 L, whereas the other device was a 45 L tank containing three separate modules. 3.3.2. Photoelectrochemical Cells Photoelectrochemical hydrogen production has been successfully demonstrated at the laboratory scale only [441] and research is now focused on photocatalytic materials and PEC design to meet performance, durability and cost requirements for viable large-scale hydrogen production [442]. PEC water-splitting technologies are still under development, and almost exclusively small-size components and prototypes are tested on laboratory experiments [443]. Recently, the scale-up of photoelectrochemical cells from the common area of 1 cm2 of laboratory prototypes to panels up to 1 m2 has been developed. PECDEMO project is a European collaborative project co-funded by Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) for the development of a pilot plant of a hybrid photoelectrochemical-photovoltaic (PEC-PV) tandem cell to produce hydrogen through water splitting. The area of the proposed device is 50 cm2, and photoelectrodes are realized with Fe2O3, Cu2O and BiVO4 metal oxides and Si or perovskite multi-junction PV semiconductors. The measured STH efficiency is 8%–10% [444,445]. Goto et al. [446] research, financed by the Artificial Photosynthesis Project of the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO), demonstrates a flat panel reactor with 1 m2PDF Image | Green Synthetic Fuels
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