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Energies 2020, 13, 420 34 of 96 of receiver area with RhCrOx/Al-doped SrTiO3 photocatalyst powder suspended in distilled water without any supporting electrolyte. Finally, The Artificial Photosynthetic Chemical Process (ARPChemi) Japan research group introduces the plan for a future industrial plant scheduled for 2030. In the research project, photoelectrochemical devices in large-scale reactor panels, product gas separation and transport technologies, and safety measures against explosion are included [447]. 4. Bio-to-Gas Routes Biomass can be considered as one of the renewable and promising energy resources that are suitable as substitutes of fossil fuels. Biomass can be burned directly for the production of heat and electric power as well as synthesize solid, liquid and gas biofuels. Biofuels are derived via a variety of methods such as thermochemical conversion technologies (pyrolysis, gasification, liquefaction, torrefaction) and biological catalytic reactions (anaerobic digestion, fermentation). Biofuels can be synthesized from dedicated cultivation of edible crops including sugar, starch and vegetable oil (first-generation), from lignocellulosic biomass such as agricultural and forestry feedstock and from municipal and industrial waste (second-generation) and cultivated aquatic feedstock such as algae (third-generation) [448]. Biomass is typically referred to as a carbon-neutral fuel since the carbon dioxide emitted from bioenergy use is balanced by carbon sequestration through photosynthesis. Still, it is recognized increasingly that this is incorrect due to carbon-stock changes [449]. The main advantage of biomass among of the rest of the renewable energy sources is to be a predictable energy resource of renewable nature that can be easily stored, transported and utilized far away from the point of origin [450]. Instead, main drawbacks are the impact on natural ecosystems and low power density (0.5 W/m2 of biomass crops) compared to other renewable sources (2 W/m2 of wind power and 10 W/m2 of photovoltaic power) [451]. Compared to coal, biomass has low contents of ash, C, FC, N, S, Si and higher volatile matter, but has also a high content of moisture [452]. The thermochemical conversion of biomass involves pyrolysis and gasification processes employing high temperature to enhance the energy density reducing the oxygen content. The decomposition of biomass converts large complex solid or liquid hydrocarbon compounds of biomass into a solid phase and a gas phase. The gas phase constitutes the syngas with a high heating value and is used for biofuel production or power generation. Instead, the solid phase is the char that is a mixture of the unconverted organic fraction (mostly carbon) and inert materials (ash). Syngas is a blend containing mainly carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), steam and other hydrocarbons such as ethane, propane and tars. Undesirable impurities could also be present such as nitrogen, sulfur and chlorine species [46]. The final product gas composition of biomass gasification depends on feedstock treated, gasification technology (e.g., type of reactor, gasification agent) and operating conditions [453]. The main steps of the biomass gasification process are outlined in Figure 16 and are: • Feedstock pre-treatment • Pyrolysis • Char gasification • Syngas clean up.PDF Image | Green Synthetic Fuels
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