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Energies 2020, 13, 420 48 of 96 The main drawbacks are related to the catalyst deposition and replacing on the metallic structure and the high cost [173]. 4.6.2. Technology Readiness Level Catalytic methanation technologies are well known and adopted in industrial plants. Thema et al. [64], Augustyn et al. [613] and Bailera et al. [614] broadly review power-to-gas projects. More than 30 chemical methanation pilot plants are investigated by Thema et al. [64]. Among these, 9 plants are coupled with an electrolyzer with a capacity above 100 kWel. In 2009, Etogas installed a 25 kWel methanation plant (alpha-plant) in Germany. In the following years, Etogas has installed three plants with the same capacity in Germany, and one in Switzerland. In 2012, an up scale to 250 kWel installed capacity was proposed (alpha-plus-plant), and in 2013 the beta-plant with 6 MWel installed capacity was realized by co-operation partners Etogas, IWES, Audi, EWE and ZSW [615,616]. In 2015, the same co-operation partners developed the WOMBAT research project in Germany to demonstrate the operation of the first industrial power-to-gas plant for gas grid injection with an annual methane production of 3 MNm3. Three alkaline electrolyzers with a capacity of 2 MWel each produce hydrogen, exploiting the renewable energy surplus. The carbon dioxide required for the methanation reaction is generated in the biogas plant [617]. MeGa-StoRE project has proposed a one-step methanation process for biogas upgrading. Electrolyzer modules produce the hydrogen requested for the catalytic methanation. In 2015, the first proof of concept plant was built in Denmark. Three additional plants are planned: a 250 kWel size demonstration plant in 2020, and two commercial plants with 10 MWel installed capacity in 2035 and 2050 [618]. Three demonstration plants have been planned within Store&GO project in Italy (200 kW), Germany (1 MW) and Switzerland (700 kW, under construction). In Italy the methanation modular micro-reactor is coupled with the electrolyzer modules realized by the INGRID project, while the carbon dioxide required for the catalytic reaction is absorbed and captured from the atmosphere. In Germany, the honeycomb reactor is fed by the CO2 captured in a bioethanol plant and the hydrogen generated by the electrolyzer coupled with wind facilities [619]. GoBiGas project is the first-of-its-kind at the industrial scale, built in Sweden by Göteborg Energi AB and the Swedish Energy Agency for the commercial production of 20 MW of biomethane. GoBiGas plant combines the biomass gasification and methanation processes for the biomethane grid injection. The plant was decommissioned in 2018 [620]. Finally, other projects with installed capacity above 100 kWel are in operation such as CO2RRECT, RenerG2 and W2P2G. The CO2RRECT project was developed in 2013 in Germany. The methanation reactor is fed by the hydrogen produced by a 300 kWel electrolyzer and the carbon dioxide from the flue gas conveyed from a lignite-fired power plant [621]. RENERG2 project has been constructed in 2015 in Switzerland. A PEM electrolysis cell with non-noble metal catalysts produces the hydrogen for the hydrogen-rich methanation of CO2 containing gases [622]. Moreover, the W2P2G (waste to power-to-gas) project (400 kWel) in the Netherland has been promoted by several project partners including Attero, Gasunie, Audi, the Ministry of Economics and the Ministry of Infrastructures. The Attero biogas production plant is combined with an electrolyzer and a methanation reactor. The biomethane produced is injected into the natural gas grid [623]. 5. Green Synthetic Fuels Supply Chain Synthetic fuels can be stored, injected into the natural gas network, burned or converted in electricity through the fuel cell technologies. The hydrogen supply chain can follow three pathways: (i) the on-board storage in tanks for road mobility application through fuel cells, (ii) the transport through dedicated pipelines and its subsequent utilization in fuel cells for building heat and power generation and in combustor for high-heat industrial processes, and (iii) the injection in existing pipelines blended with natural gas and its utilization for typical natural gas end uses. Instead, syntheticPDF Image | Green Synthetic Fuels
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