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energy systems and subsequently the production of dense-energy carriers from dilute renewable resources. Additional considerations are resource availability, ge- ography, and political factors, which can motivate or demotivate large-scale plants or local generation and usage. In either case, the total area of installations needed to impact current production routes is linearly correlated by the total amount of CO2 that we will need to convert, which should add further perspective to the urgency to scale current technology routes. Future Outlook and Summary One of the drivers of performing the above analysis is to determine how an air-to- barrel approach to CO2 conversion can provide a broad-brush assessment of some practical operating conditions and constraints for individual steps in the process. This is particularly true for CO2 electrolyzers that have not yet been examined in an integrated system, despite the motivations of their future role in the energy transition. While the above described case is for one specific set of technologies, it does already tell us that the technology required to capture CO2 must be able to integrate with CO2 conversion, and that if the CO2 conversion process does not make a ‘‘final’’ product, then the CO2 conversion must also be able to integrate with further downstream processing. A more detailed process and system analyses in the future will help to identify further opportunities and constraints for solar fuel production using CO2 electrolyzers as a conversion technology, which can then allow for proper comparisons against competing technologies (reverse water-gas shift, direct CO2 to MeOH heterogeneous catalysis,27,29,30 and solid-oxide CO2 electrolysis31). In our case, the constraints of MeOH synthesis and conditions necessary for BPMED both require that CO2 electrolysis be performed at higher pressures than are regularly reported in the literature. Interestingly, removing CO2 as a gas from the recovered capture solvent by depressurizing or regeneration, for instance, requires additional energy compared to using the saturated solution directly (Figure 2). Therefore, such a case study can provide new boundary conditions necessary for in- dustrial CO2 electroreduction and consolidate both fundamental and practical research to operate in realistic conditions. As technology improves, there will be further opportunities to expand and ex- change different components to optimize system efficiencies further, however, the required inlet and outlet conditions remain relatively fixed. One example of this is the possibility for CO2 electroreduction in a gas-diffusion system instead of a pressurized aqueous system.63,64 While gaseous CO2 would have to be removed from the BPMED at a specific energy cost, which may justify or motivate using amine-based DAC over alkaline capture, the overall gains in efficiency made in the CO2 reduction reaction may outweigh any additional energy requirements within the capture stage. Unless the gas-diffusion system were pressurized, how- ever, substantial energy would then be required to compress CO and H2 for the synthesis step, which could remove any gains in overall efficiency. Further, replac- ing the BPMED step with a thermally driven release of CO2 from a capture solvent using waste heat, may allow for the direct use of gas-diffusion layer configurations for CO2 reduction while reducing the renewable electrical energy requirements of the overall unit. It is our hope that the process intensification and integration described in the example air-to-barrel case will aid the CO2 electroreduction community in assessing relevant operating conditions that will be needed to scale the technology to a 1832 Joule 3, 1822–1834, August 21, 2019PDF Image | Pathways to Industrial Scale Fuel from CO2 Electrolysis
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