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practical level. Considering these operating conditions and constraints can provide a new playground to understand fundamental reaction phenomena and optimize catalyst, electrolyte, and reactor systems, while providing motivation to accelerate the technology toward its end goal. By envisioning the future energy and size re- quirements of CO2 electrolyzers within a solar fuels process and comparing that to progress in the research field today, we can then start to assess when and how elec- trochemical CO2 reduction will play a measurable role in the upcoming energy transition. SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION Supplemental Information can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule. 2019.07.009. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was supported by contributions from the European Research Council in the form of an ERC Starting grant (WUTANG) provided to W.A.S. One of the authors (H.G.) acknowledges many fruitful discussions with members of Shell’s ‘‘Long Range Research’’ group, which is actively pursuing ‘‘integrated processes for synthesis of solar fuels’’ as described in this article. The authors also greatly acknowledge fund- ing support from the ‘‘Towards large-scale electro-conversion systems (TOeLS)’’ project and Bernard Dam that supported Open Access publishing of this perspective. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS All authors contributed to the conceptualization of the work. T.B. and W.A.S. acted as primary writers of the original manuscript while all authors reviewed and edited the manuscript. W.A.S. was responsible for manuscript correspondence and overall supervision of the manuscript. REFERENCES 1. IPCC (2018). Special report on global warming of 1.5 C (SR15), https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/. 2. Gu ̈ r, T.M. (2018). Review of electrical energy storage technologies, materials and systems: challenges and prospects for large-scale grid storage. Energy Environ. Sci. 11, 2696–2767. 3. Sinn, H.-W. (2017). Buffering volatility: a study on the limits of Germany’s energy revolution. Eur. Econ. Rev. 99, 130–150. 4. Byrne, R.H., Nguyen, T.A., Copp, D.A., Chalamala, B.R., and Gyuk, I. (2018). Energy management and optimization methods for grid energy storage systems. IEEE Access 6, 13231–13260. 5. Ng, K.S., Moo, C.-S., Chen, Y.-P., and Hsieh, Y.-C. (2009). Enhanced coulomb counting method for estimating state-of-charge and state-of-health of lithium-ion batteries. Appl. Energy 86, 1506–1511. 6. Department of Energy. Energy storage exchange, https://www. energystorageexchange.org/. 7. Walker, S.B., Mukherjee, U., Fowler, M., and Elkamel, A. (2016). Benchmarking and selection of power-to-gas utilizing electrolytic hydrogen as an energy storage alternative. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 41, 7717–7731. 8. Shaner, M.R., Atwater, H.A., Lewis, N.S., and McFarland, E.W. (2016). A comparative technoeconomic analysis of renewable hydrogen production using solar energy. Energy Environ. Sci. 9, 2354–2371. 9. Kondratenko, E.V., Mul, G., Baltrusaitis, J., Larraza ́ bal, G.O., and Pe ́ rez-Ramı ́rez, J. (2013). Status and perspectives of CO2 conversion into fuels and chemicals by catalytic, photocatalytic and electrocatalytic processes. Energy Environ. Sci. 6, 3112–3135. 10. Bushuyev, O.S., De Luna, P., Dinh, C.T., Tao, L., Saur, G., van de Lagemaat, J., Kelley, S.O., and Sargent, E.H. (2018). What should we make with CO2 and how can we make it? Joule 2, 825–832. 11. Tremel, A., Wasserscheid, P., Baldauf, M., and Hammer, T. (2015). Techno-economic analysis for the synthesis of liquid and gaseous fuels based on hydrogen production via electrolysis. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 40, 11457–11464. 12. Kibria, M.G., Edwards, J.P., Gabardo, C.M., Dinh, C.T., Seifitokaldani, A., Sinton, D., and Sargent, E.H. (2019). Electrochemical CO2 reduction into chemical feedstocks: from mechanistic electrocatalysis models to system design. Adv. Mater. e1807166. 13. Schmidt, O., Gambhir, A., Staffell, I., Hawkes, A., Nelson, J., and Few, S. (2017). Future cost and performance of water electrolysis: an expert elicitation study. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 42, 30470–30492. 14. Jiang, C., Moniz, S.J.A., Wang, A., Zhang, T., and Tang, J. (2017). Photoelectrochemical devices for solar water splitting - materials and challenges. Chem. Soc. Rev. 46, 4645–4660. 15. Kang, D., Young, J.L., Lim, H., Klein, W.E., Chen, H., Xi, Y., Gai, B., Deutsch, T.G., and Yoon, J. (2017). Printed assemblies of GaAs photoelectrodes with decoupled optical and reactive interfaces for unassisted solar water splitting. Nat. Energy 2, 17043. 16. Nocera, D.G. (2017). Solar fuels and solar chemicals industry. Acc. Chem. Res. 50, 616–619. 17. Gahleitner, G. (2013). Hydrogen from renewable electricity: an international review of power-to-gas pilot plants for stationary applications. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 38, 2039– 2061. 18. Sheehan, S.W., Cave, E.R., Kuhl, K.P., Flanders, N., Smeigh, A.L., and Co, D.T. (2017). Commercializing solar fuels within today’s markets. Chem 3, 3–7. 19. Detz, R.J., Reek, J.N.H., and van der Zwaan, B.C.C. (2018). The future of solar fuels: when Joule 3, 1822–1834, August 21, 2019 1833PDF Image | Pathways to Industrial Scale Fuel from CO2 Electrolysis
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