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Table 2.3: Gravimetric and volumetric specs for the hydrogen storage systems considered in this study. Cryogenic liquid13 8.7 24.8 so can be reasonably extrapolated to larger gas quantities. These tanks have an aluminum inner shell and a carbon fiber overwrap, making them much 4-5 times lighter than traditional steel tanks. Because individual gaseous tanks do not hold the large quantities of hydrogen needed for ships, an array size is used instead of an individual tank size because of the additional volume and some additional weight that is needed when arranging the tanks in an array. The specs for the LH2 system are based on a single tank with 1,200 kg capacity. Larger tank sizes are possible and will reduce the gravimetric and volumetric spec numbers, so using numbers for a 1,200 kg tank is conservative. Arrays of LH2 tanks will encounter penalties like gaseous tanks, but these penalties can be offset by the better storage efficiency gained by going to larger tanks as part of that array. Therefore, the 1,200 kg tank numbers are used as representative for this study. 2.2. Batteries 2.2.1. Why Batteries? Batteries are another zero emission alternative to conventional power production. Already, they have become popular transportation options in the automobile industry; battery-electric vehicle models are offered by every major automaker. Battery technology is improving rapidly and is predicted to become more mass and volume efficient in the coming years. According to PBES Norway AS, the amount of energy per battery will increase 40% within five years.14 Battery charging is also maturing with commercial multi-MW fast charging marine systems already developed and being deployed. 2.2.2. Battery History15 Early batteries came about in the 1800s with the “Leyden Jar” and “Voltaic Pile.” A Voltaic Pile consists of stacks of copper (anode) and zinc (cathode) discs separated by sheets of cloth soaked in brine. In the 1850s, Gaston Plante invented the lead acid battery, the predecessor to today’s batteries. In 1891, William Morrison built the first electric vehicle with 24 lead acid batteries producing 48 V, 112 Ah, and 5.4 kWh of energy, weighing 2 tons. 12 Based on the Luxfer-GTM Constant Pressure Refueler without the trailer assembly, a 60 kg array of 8 tanks. Product overview available at: https://www.luxfergtm.com/uploads/3/5/6/6/3566041/gtm-cpr_2016.pdf 13 From SF-BREEZE report Table 5; Based on information from Gardner Cryogenics 14 C. Ianssen, E. Ianssen, and T. Sandblost, “Battery/fuel cell fast ferry,” Selfa AS, April 2017. 15 This section is largely adapted from J. Warner, “Batteries 101,” presented at the MARAD Hi-Power Battery Workshop, December 15, 2016, Washington DC. Tank Type Gravimetric spec (Empty Tank Mass/H2 Stored Mass) (kg/kg) Volumetric spec (Outer Tank Volume/H2 Stored Mass) (L/kg) 5,000 psi (350 bar) 17.92 93.7 compressed gas12 26PDF Image | Regenerative Fuel Cell
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