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Fig. 4. SOFC power systems (hardware demonstrators, prototypes and pre-commercial systems up to 200 kW, concepts at 1MW and above). such as temperature distribution, thermal expansion mismatch as operation proceeds. These factors can lead to degradation in long-term operation. It is highly possible that during long-term operation, chemical interaction develops and electrical contact between the cathode and the interconnect evolves, ohmic resistance increased and contact area reduced, resulting in higher ohmic losses and thus degradation (Fig. 5). Conductive contact pastes have been used in planar stacks to minimize contact resistance; however, stability of such contact pastes over long duration is questionable. Fabrication scale-up and minia- turization.—Tubular SOFC cells (typical diameters of >15 mm) have been fabricated in full active length (e.g., 150 cm) and tubular cell stacks of up to 100 kW have been assembled.4 Planar SOFC cells, especially anode- (hydrogen electrode-) supported cells, have recently been scaled up to sizes having active areas (e.g., 500-1000 cm2) suitable for uses in large power systems. Manufacture of planar cells as large as 1200 cm2 in total area has been demonstrated17 and planar SOFC stacks of up to 15 kW have been built and operated for thousands of hours. Segmented-cells-in-series SOFCs has been made into practical assembly/ stack sizes (e.g., 60-cell assemblies of 60 W output18). These assemblies can be stacked and bundled to form modules of appropriate power levels. For example, 20 kW modules Fig. 5. Cathode (oxygen electrode)/metallic interconnect contact evolution. The Electrochemical Society Interface • Winter 2013 57 suitable for 1 MW systems have been constructed from five strips of 12 parallel bundles of six 60-cell assemblies.18 SOFC stacks based on the monolithic design have been scaled up to 30 kW sizes.19 In addition to fabrication scale-up for large power systems, the SOFC has also been scaled down for certain applications such as consumer electronics devices and compact portable powers.20 Miniature SOFCs being developed to date include micro-tubular (diameters of <5 mm) cells,20 thin-film cells micro-fabricated on silicon wafers20 and single-chamber SOFCs.21 The development of practical units based these miniature cells has made significant technical and commercialization progress with recent introduction of pre-commercial products, such as 5 V, 2.5 W mobile power,22 12-24 V, 1-375 W portable power,23 and 1.2 V, 4000 mAh SOFC charger.24 Fuel utilization.—The SOFC can operate directly on fuels other than hydrogen (e.g., hydrocarbons, alcohols) via internal reforming (on fuel feeds with significant amounts of water) or direct utilization (on (continued on next page)PDF Image | Reversible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology for Green Fuel
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