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Minh and Mogensen (continued from previous page) dense electrolytes and the fabrication process selected depends on the configuration of the cells in the stack. One of the key attributes of the SOFC is its multi-fuel capability. For fuels other than pure hydrogen, the SOFC can operate on reformates (via external reformation) or on hydrocarbons and other fuels (via internal reforming or direct utilization).5 The operating temperature of the SOFC can be varied by modifying electrolyte material and/or electrolyte thickness. Examples include operating temperatures of 900o-1000oC for thick (>50 micrometers) YSZ electrolytes,2 700o-800oC for thin (<15 micrometers) YSZ electrolytes2 or doped lanthanum gallate electrolytes,6 500o-600oC for thin doped ceria electrolytes,7 and 400o-500oC for thin doped ceria/bismuth oxide bilayer electrolytes.8 The SOFC has been considered for a broad spectrum of power generation applications and markets. Applications include power systems ranging from watt-sized devices to multimegawatt power plants and potential markets for the SOFC cover portable, transportation, and stationary sectors. Many of the applications for the SOFC have progressed to hardware demonstration and prototype/ pre-commercial stages while several applications, especially those with large power outputs, are at the conceptual/design stage (Fig. 4). Significant advancements have been made in the past few years in several technological areas critical to the development and commercialization of the fuel cell: performance, fabrication scale-up and miniaturization, fuel utilization, and performance degradation and durability. Performance.—SOFC single cells have exhibited peak power densities as high as 2 W/cm2 at temperatures as low as 650oC (with hydrogen fuel and air oxidant, low fuel and air utilizations).8 SOFC stacks have demonstrated electrochemical performance under operating conditions appropriate for practical uses. For example, a 96-cell planar stack shows a power density of about 0.3 W/ cm2 (voltage of about 0.82 V per cell at 0.364 A/cm2), 715oC on air (15% air utilization), and fuel containing 25.2% H2- 22.4% N2-14.5% natural gas (NG)-37.8% H2O (68% fuel utilization).9 For state-of-the-art SOFC single cells (having minimal ohmic resistance contributions from the components), cathode (oxygen electrode) polarization is generally the major contribution to cell performance losses. Thus, many cathode studies have been conducted to obtain a better understanding of the oxygen reduction reaction mechanisms and develop approaches to improve cathode performance.10,11 One major development in recent cathode R&D work is the demonstration of infiltration as a potent means for electrode performance enhancement.12,13 For example, infiltration Fig. 2. Characteristics of a future energy system. 56 The Electrochemical Society Interface • Winter 2013 Fig. 3. An example of an RSOFC-based sustainable energy system. of yttria-doped ceria (YDC) into LSM/YSZ cathode increased peak power density from 208 to 519 mW/cm2 at 700oC and power density at 0.7V from 135 to 370 mW/cm2.12 Infiltration of active components as dispersed particles or connected nanoparticulate networks to form nanostructures enhances cathode performance by modifying catalytic activities and/or conduction pathways of the electrode. Use of nanostructures has also been shown to improve anode performance.14 The main issue is the stability of the nanostructure over extended periods of time at high operating temperatures. Operating the SOFC at reduced temperatures (e.g., <600oC) or stabilizing the nanostructure are potential approaches to maintain sufficient long-term stability.12,15 In SOFC stacks, especially planar stacks with metallic interconnects, contact resistance between the electrodes, especially the cathode, and the metallic interconnect is the major factor in stack performance losses16 and long-term performance degradation. The contact between the ceramic cathode and the metallic interconnect tends to change due to thermodynamic driving forces and other operating characteristicsPDF Image | Reversible Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Technology for Green Fuel
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