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CHAPTER ONE Smaller scale Fischer Tropsch plants would be needed to take advantage of isolated renewable electricity or carbon sources. 1.2 Future developments 1.2.1 Scaling down Fischer Tropsch Commercial Fischer Tropsch plants are normally built on a large scale. Smaller scale Fischer Tropsch plants would be needed to take advantage of isolated renewable electricity or carbon sources. These are being developed, for example, CompactGTL have a fully commercialised modular plant in Kazakhstan that produces 2500 barrels/day of synthetic crude32. 1.2.2 Electrolysis Producing low-carbon hydrogen through the electrolysis of water will become more commercially viable as the price of renewable electricity falls and the electrolysers become more efficient. Research is underway to improve the costs of electrolysis and is already starting to yield benefits. For example, Thyssenkrupp claim their advanced electrolyser technology can make large scale hydrogen production from renewable electricity economically attractive by achieving high efficiencies of around 69%LhV33. There is interest in the direct conversion of carbon dioxide to fuels using electricity with special electrocatalyst electrodes to, for example, by reducing carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide and then converting it to a fuel or reducing it directly to methanol or methyl formate34 – 36. 1.2.3 Bacterial conversion Bacterial conversion of carbon dioxide to efuels without directly using biomass, is also an area of current research. Electrochaea Gmbh has developed a biocatalyst to combine low-carbon hydrogen and atmospheric carbon dioxide in a bioreactor to produce synthetic methane37. 1.2.4 Solar to fuels Solar or photocatalytic conversion of carbon dioxide has been actively studied for a number of years38 – 40. It involves the activation of catalysts using light to convert carbon dioxide directly into fuels such as methanol. Catalysts based on titanium dioxide are most commonly used because of their high efficacy. Despite progress, there have been a number of challenges limiting its widespread uptake and in particular, more work needs to be done on conversion rates, overall yields and selectivity. Recent work focussing on modified graphene has reported useful rates of production for methane and ethane from carbon dioxide with sunlight41. While these levels are still ultimately very low, this work suggests that with further development higher rates could be achievable. Research is also continuing into the direct solar conversion of water vapour into hydrogen with efficiencies of up to 15% being reported42. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. CompactGTL. Projects. See http://www.compactgtl.com/about/projects/ (accessed 17 April 2019). Thyssenkrupp. 2018 hydrogen from large-scale electrolysis. See https://www.thyssenkrupp-uhde-chlorine-engineers. com/en/products/water-electrolysis-hydrogen-production/ (accessed 17 April 2019). Al-Omari AA, Yamani Zh, Nguyen hL 2018 Electrocatalytic CO2 reduction: From homogeneous catalysts to heterogeneous-based reticular chemistry. Molecules, 23, 2835. (doi:10.3390/molecules23112835). De Luna P et al. 2018 Catalyst electro-redeposition controls morphology and oxidation state for selective carbon dioxide reduction. Nature Catalysis, 1, 103-110. (doi:10.1038/s41929-017-0018-9). Feng DM, Zhu YP, Chen P, Ma TY. 2017 Recent Advances in Transition-Metal-Mediated Electrocatalytic CO2 Reduction: From homogeneous to heterogeneous Systems. Catalysts, 7, 371. (doi:10.3390/catal7120373). Electrochaea. how the technology works. See http://www.electrochaea.com/technology/ (accessed 17 April 2019). Piumetti M, Fino D, Russo N. 2014 Photocatalytic Reduction of CO2 into Fuels: A Short Review. Journal of Advanced Catalysis Science and Technology, 1, 16-25. (doi: 10.15379/2408-9834.2014.01.02.03). Tuller hL. 2017 Solar to fuels conversion technologies: a perspective. Materials for Renewable and Sustainable Energy, 6, 3. (doi: 10.1007/s40243-017-0088-2). Marxer DA et al. 2015 Demonstration of the entire production chain to renewable kerosene via solar-thermochemical splitting of h2O and CO. Energy Fuels, 29, 3241-3250. (doi:10.1021/acs.energyfuels.5b00351). Sorcar S et al. 2018 high-rate solar-light photoconversion of CO2 to fuel: controllable transformation from C1 to C2 products. Energy and Environmental Science, 11, 3183-3193. (doi: 10.1039/C8EE00983J). heremans G et al. 2017 Vapor-fed solar hydrogen production exceeding 15% efficiency using earth abundant catalysts and anion exchange membrane. Sustainable Energy and Fuels. 1, 2061–2065. (doi:10.1039/c7se00373k). 18 SuSTAINABLE SYNThETIC CARBON BASED FuELS FOR TRANSPORT – POLICY BRIEFINGPDF Image | Sustainable synthetic carbon based fuels for transport
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