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The Future of Hydrogen Chapter 2: Producing hydrogen and hydrogen-based products Hydrogen can be produced using a range of energy sources and technologies. Global hydrogen production today is dominated by the use of fossil fuels. Electrolytic hydrogen – that is, hydrogen produced from water and electricity – plays only a minor role (although it was a major source of industrial hydrogen in the 1920s to 1960s, using electricity generated from hydropower, before being displaced by natural gas). With declining costs for renewable power (in particular solar PV and wind), interest is now growing in water electrolysis for hydrogen production and in the scope for further conversion of that hydrogen into hydrogen-based fuels or feedstocks, such as synthetic hydrocarbons and ammonia, which are more compatible than hydrogen with existing infrastructure. This chapter explores the various ways of making hydrogen and hydrogen products. It begins with an analysis of the existing sources and methods of production of hydrogen. It then considers key sources of hydrogen production, looking in turn at natural gas, water and electricity, coal, and biomass in terms of both technology options and costs. The chapter then provides an overview of the scope for converting hydrogen into fuels and feedstocks that are easier than hydrogen to store, transport and use. Production of hydrogen today Hydrogen can be extracted from fossil fuels and biomass, or from water, or from a mix of both (Figure 7). Around 275 Mtoe of energy are used for the production of hydrogen today (2% of global total primary energy demand). Natural gas is currently the primary source of hydrogen production, and steam methane reformers using natural gas are the workhorse of dedicated hydrogen production in the ammonia and methanol industries and in refineries. Natural gas accounts for around three-quarters of the annual global dedicated hydrogen production of around 70 million tonnes of hydrogen (MtH2), using around 205 billion cubic metres (bcm) of natural gas (6% of global natural gas use). Coal comes next, due to its dominant role in China: it accounts for an estimated 23% of global dedicated hydrogen production and uses 107 Mt of coal (2% of global coal use). Oil and electricity account for the remainder of the dedicated production. The dependence on natural gas and coal means that hydrogen production today generates significant CO2 emissions: 10 tonnes of carbon dioxide per tonne of hydrogen (tCO2/tH2) from natural gas,6 12 tCO2/tH2 from oil products, and 19 tCO2/tH2 from coal. This results in total CO2 formation of about 830 MtCO2/yr, corresponding to the combined CO2 emissions of Indonesia and the United Kingdom. Most of this CO2 is emitted to the atmosphere, although in ammonia/urea plants the concentrated CO2 streams from steam methane reforming (SMR) (around 130 MtCO2 each year) are captured and used in the production of urea fertiliser.7 Reforming is the most widespread method for producing hydrogen from natural gas. There are three methods: steam reforming (using water as an oxidant and a source of hydrogen), partial oxidation (using oxygen in the air as the oxidant), or a combination of both called autothermal reforming (ATR).8 Steam reforming is used to extract hydrogen from natural gas and – much 6 Fugitiveemissionsduringnaturalgasproduction,processingandtransportareimportanttoconsiderwhencomparingdifferent hydrogen production routes as they represent a significant share of the CO2 mitigation potential (Tlili et al., 2019). 7 The carbon contained in the urea fertiliser is, however, released again as CO2 when the fertiliser is applied by farmers to the soil. 8 Steam reforming requires heat (“endothermic”), while partial oxidation releases heat (“exothermic”). ATR uses both air and water as oxidants, so it does not require or release heat. PAGE | 38 IEA. All rights reserved.PDF Image | The Future of Hydrogen 2019
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