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The Future of Hydrogen Chapter 3: Storage, transmission and distribution of hydrogen Hydrogen storage Today hydrogen is most commonly stored as a gas or liquid in tanks for small-scale mobile and stationary applications. However, the smooth operation of large-scale and intercontinental hydrogen value chains in the future will require a much broader variety of storage options. At an export terminal, for example, hydrogen storage may be required for a short period prior to shipping. Hours of hydrogen storage are needed at vehicle refuelling stations, while days to weeks of storage would help users protect against potential mismatches in hydrogen supply and demand. Much longer-term and larger storage options would be required if hydrogen were used to bridge major seasonal changes in electricity supply or heat demand, or to provide system resilience.17 The most appropriate storage medium depends on the volume to be stored, the duration of storage, the required speed of discharge, and the geographic availability of different options. In general, however, geological storage is the best option for large-scale and long-term storage, while tanks are more suitable for short-term and small-scale storage. Geological storage Salt caverns, depleted natural gas or oil reservoirs and aquifers are all possible options for large- scale and long-term hydrogen storage (HyUnder, 2014; Kruck et al., 2013). They are currently used for natural gas storage and provide significant economies of scale, high efficiency (the quantity of hydrogen injected divided by the quantity that can be extracted), low operational costs and low land costs. These characteristics mean that they are likely to be the lowest-cost option for hydrogen storage even though hydrogen has low energy density compared to natural gas (Bünger et al., 2014). Salt caverns have been used for hydrogen storage by the chemical sector in the United Kingdom since the 1970s and the United States since the 1980s. They typically cost less than USD 0.6/kgH2, have an efficiency of around 98%, and have a low risk of contaminating the hydrogen that is stored (H21, 2018; Bünger et al., 2014; Lord, Kobos and Borns, 2014). Their high pressures enable high discharge rates, making them attractive for industrial and power sector applications. Because salt cavern storage is generally operated as a series of separate, adjacent caverns, natural gas storage facilities could be converted to hydrogen stores one at a time as hydrogen use increases, reducing upfront costs. The United States has the largest salt cavern hydrogen storage system currently in operation; it can store around 30 days of hydrogen output from a nearby steam methane reformer (between 10 and 20 thousand tonnes of H2 (ktH2)) to help manage the supply and demand for refining and chemicals. The United Kingdom has three salt caverns that can store 1 ktH2, while a 3.5 ktH2 storage demonstration project in a salt cavern is under preparation in Germany (planned for 2023). Depleted oil and gas reservoirs are typically larger than salt caverns, but they are also more permeable and contain contaminants that would have to be removed before the hydrogen could be used in fuel cells. Water aquifers are the least mature of the three geological storage options, and there is mixed evidence for their suitability (although they were previously used for years to store town gas with 50–60% hydrogen). As with oil and gas reservoirs, natural barriers trap the vast majority of the hydrogen deep underground. However, reactions with micro- organisms, fluids and rocks can lead to losses of hydrogen. As they have not previously been 17 An additional option would be for hydrogen to provide short-duration electricity storage, for example for less than a day. However, it is likely that pumped-storage hydropower, compressed air storage and/or batteries will outcompete hydrogen where they are available. PAGE | 69 IEA. All rights reserved.PDF Image | The Future of Hydrogen 2019
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