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The Future of Hydrogen Chapter 3: Storage, transmission and distribution of hydrogen Box 7. Advantages and disadvantages of ammonia and LOHCs Converting hydrogen to ammonia requires energy equivalent to between 7% and 18% of the energy contained in the hydrogen, depending on the size and location of the system (Aakko-Saksaa et al., 2018; Hansen, 2017; Bartels, 2008). A similar level of energy is lost if the ammonia needs to be reconverted back to high-purity hydrogen at its destination (Brown, 2017; Giddey, 2017). Nevertheless, ammonia liquefies at -33°C, a much higher temperature than is the case for hydrogen, and contains 1.7 times more hydrogen per cubic metre than liquefied hydrogen, which means it is much cheaper to transport than hydrogen. While ammonia already has a well-established international transmission and distribution network (see Chapter 2), it is a toxic chemical and this may limit its use in some end-use sectors. There is also a risk that some uncombusted ammonia could escape, which can lead to the formation of particulate matter (an air pollutant) and acidification (Table below). Making an LOHC involves “loading” a “carrier” molecule with hydrogen, transporting it, and then extracting pure hydrogen again at its destination. LOHCs have similar properties to crude oil and oil products, and their key advantage is that they can be transported as liquids without the need for cooling. However, as with ammonia, there are costs associated with the conversion and reconversion processes involved. These processes would require energy equivalent to between 35% and 40% of the hydrogen itself (Wulf and Zapp, 2018; Reuß et al., 2017). In addition, the carrier molecules in an LOHC are often expensive and are not used up when hydrogen is created again at the end of the process, so need to be shipped back to their place of origin. Several different LOHC molecules are under consideration, each with various benefits and drawbacks. In this chapter LOHCs refers to methylcyclohexane (MCH), a relatively low-cost option with toluene as the carrier molecule. Around 22 Mt of toluene is currently produced annually (for commercial products), a quantity that could carry 1.4 MtH2 if it were to be used as an LOHC. It costs around USD 400–900 per tonne. However, toluene is toxic and would require careful handling. A non-toxic alternative LOHC is dibenzyltoluene. Although this is much more expensive than toluene today, scaling up could make it a more attractive option in the long run, especially given its non- toxic nature. Methanol and formic acid are other options, but they lead to greenhouse gas emissions if used directly (unless produced with non-fossil sources of carbon). For both ammonia and LOHCs, effective utilisation of the heat released in the conversion process could increase the efficiency of the value chain and reduce overall costs. Selected properties of hydrogen carriers Liquid hydrogen Ammonia LOHC (MCH) Process and technology maturity* Conversion Tank storage Transport Reconversion Supply chain integration Small scale: High Large scale: Low High Ship: Low Pipeline: High Truck: High High Medium/high High High Ship: High Pipeline: High Truck: High Medium High Medium High Ship: High Pipeline: High Truck: High Medium Medium PAGE | 75 IEA. All rights reserved.PDF Image | The Future of Hydrogen 2019
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