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The Future of Hydrogen Chapter 3: Storage, transmission and distribution of hydrogen Liquid hydrogen Ammonia LOHC (MCH) Hazards** Flammable; no smell or flame visibility Flammable; acute toxicity; precursor to air pollution; corrosive Toluene: flammable; moderate toxicity. Other LOHCs can be safer. Conversion and reconversion energy required*** Current: 25–35% Potential: 18% Conversion: 7–18% Reconversion: < 20% Current: 35–40% Potential: 25% AHEAD; Chiyoda; Hydrogenious; Framatome; Clariant Technology improvements and scale-up needs Production plant efficiency; boil-off management Integration with flexible electrolysers; improved conversion efficiency; H2 purification Utilisation of conversion heat; reconversion efficiency Selected organisations developing supply chain HySTRA; CSIRO; Fortescue Metals Group; Air Liquide Green Ammonia consortium; IHI Corporation; US Department of Energy * High = proven and commercial; Medium = prototype demonstrated; Low = validated or under development; Small scale = < 5 tonnes per day; Large scale = > 100 tonnes per day. ** Toxicity criteria based on inhalation. *** Given as a percentage of lower heating value of hydrogen; values are for hydrogen that could be used in fuel cells; lower-purity hydrogen would require less energy. Sources: Aakko-Saksaa et al. (2018), “Liquid organic hydrogen carriers for transportation and storing of renewable energy – Review and discussion”, Journal of Power Sources; Bartels, (2008), “A feasibility study of implementing an Ammonia Economy”, Iowa State University; Brown, (2017), “Round-trip efficiency of ammonia as a renewable energy transportation media”, Ammonia Energy; Giddey (2017), “Ammonia as a renewable energy transportation media”, ACS Sust. Chem. Eng.; Hansen (2017), “Solid oxide cell enabled ammonia synthesis and ammonia based power production”; Reuß et al. (2017), “Seasonal storage and alternative carriers: A flexible hydrogen supply chain model”, Applied Energy; Wulf and Zapp, (2018), “Assessment of system variations for hydrogen transport by liquid organic hydrogen carriers”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. Long-distance transmission Transporting energy over long distances is easier when the energy is a chemical fuel rather than electricity. Chemical fuels tend to have high energy densities, do not suffer losses while being transported, benefit from economies of scale, and allow point-to-point trading or transmission across widespread networks. Most natural gas and oil are moved around the world in large-scale pipelines and ships, and both these options can also be used for hydrogen and hydrogen carriers. Moving hydrogen using trains could also be an inland option for some regions, although this would in general be a more expensive option than moving the hydrogen by pipeline. Pipelines There are close to 5 000 km of hydrogen pipelines around the world today, compared with around 3 million km of natural gas transmission pipelines. These existing hydrogen pipelines are operated by industrial hydrogen producers and are mainly used to deliver hydrogen to chemical and refinery facilities. The United States has 2 600 km, Belgium 600 km and Germany just under 400 km (Shell, 2017). Pipelines have low operational costs and lifetimes of between 40 and 80 years. Their two main drawbacks are the high capital costs entailed and the need to acquire rights of way. These mean that certainty of future hydrogen demand and government support are essential if new PAGE | 76 IEA. All rights reserved.PDF Image | The Future of Hydrogen 2019
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