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1 1.1 Background Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions of the transportation sector have a significant global impact on air quality and the environment. Amongfuel- based applications, transportation burns most of the world’s fuel,accounting for more than 67%of the total fuel consumption in the United States [1] and 73% in the United Kingdom in 2013 [2]. Transportation contributes to air pollution through mono-nitrogen oxides(NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions and to global warming through CO2 emissions. In addition, fuel prices have continually increased, from 60pence/litre in 1997 to 120 pence/litre in 2013 in the United Kingdom [3]. Theseconcerns necessitate the development of more efficient combustion engines. Recently, organic Rankine cycle (ORC) systems as waste heat recovery (WHR) systems in internal combustion engines (ICEs) have received increasing interest. This technology is most widely used in low- to medium- temperature heat sources, typically between 80°C and 350°C, due to the low boiling point of organic fluids compared to steam,which is widely used in large-scale applications. However, further development is still required to implement such technology in modern passenger cars because of the need for compact integration and controllability in the engine [4]. 1.1.1 Potential of Energy Recovery in Internal Combustion Engines This section presents a general outlook on the state of the art of energy and environmental concerns in ICEs. A detailed explanation is presented in Chapter 2. ICEs are devices in which chemical energy is transformedinto mechanical energy through fossil fuel combustion. Fossil fuel remains the main global energy source. Owing to the limited amount of such fuels, prices fluctuate significantly, with consistent general rising trends, resulting in economic issues in non-oil-producing countries. Figure 1-1presents the fuel prices in the UK, depicting an increase of 68% in diesel prices from 2003 to 2013. Moreover, the majority of fuel energy (approximately 60%–70%) is released to the environment as heat[5]. This wasted heat, which is burned fossil fuel,PDF Image | Automotive Radial Turbine Expander Design WHR
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