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12 2.1 Introduction The transportation sector accounts for ~33% of the global CO2 emissions and approximately 14% of the overall greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [15]. Light commercial and heavy-duty vehicle emissions are responsible for one- third of the total CO2 emission by the transportation sector, although these vehicles account for only 5% of the vehicles in the EU [16]. The EU legislation sets mandatory emission reduction targets as the fleet average to be achieved by all new passenger cars; specifically, 95 g CO2/km by 2021 from 130 g CO2/km in 2015 [17]. Regarding HDD engines, a 9% reduction in CO2 is required by 2017 compared to 2010 [18]. Fuel consumption is not only limited by emission standards but is also related to high operating cost for heavy-duty vehicles, which can reach up to 40% [19] as fossil fuel prices fluctuate. For these reasons, the early pivotal demand to employ WHR systems such as ORCs to decrease pollutant GHG emissions and fuel consumption will become more intensive in the near future. WHR in ICEs lies in the range of low- to high-grade heat rates, depending on the engine operating conditions and the heat sources. The main heat sources where fuel energy is wasted are exhaust gases, cooling systems [20] and the relatively smaller amounts of heat available from the EGR system [21]. Exhaust gases account for most of the wasted heat burnt at a range of 33%–40% [22], [23]. Up to 33% of this wasted heat can be recovered and converted into useful work [24]. Meanwhile, wasted heat from engine coolants accounts for up to 30% [25]. Owing to the low coolant temperature, the recovery potential of coolant energy is much lower than that ofexhaust gas energy[26]. The remaining wasted heat dissipates through other engine components, such as the EGR and CAC systems. The efficiency of the heat source is a trade-off between its quantity (energy contained in the heat source) and quality (temperature range of the heat source)[20]. In some applications, wasted heat has high temperature but low exhaust gas mass, which leads to less waste heat loss as a percentage of fuel input [27]. Nonetheless, Dolz et al. [28] stated that the Rankine cycle efficiency depends on the temperature of the heat source. According to Nadaf and Gangavati [29], exhaust gas presents high-quality and high-PDF Image | Automotive Radial Turbine Expander Design WHR
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