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14 exhaust gas and coolant of a gasoline engine are used. ORC has also been investigated in gasoline applications. Galindo et al.[40]utilised the exhaust of a 2L turbocharged gasoline engine to present a 6% ORC efficiency. Although the exhaust quality of diesel engines is lower than that of gasoline engines [41], the ORC shows better performance with diesel engines than with gasoline engines due to the higher mass flow rate values of higher displacement HDD engines. The appropriate expander and working fluid are the most crucial among ORC componentsbecause of their significant effects on the performance, size and cost of the overall cycle [42]–[44]. While no single expander is predominant, the choice of expander strongly depends on the type of working fluid and its working conditions, space and weight restrictions, size of the system [23] and power output [45]. The selection of expander type is discussed in detail in a later section. However, volumetric expanders are generally likely to be suitable for low-power outputs [45]. On the contrary, turbo-expanders can be used for high power outputs and present high isentropic efficiencies [46]. However, they are expensive due to their high rotational speeds, which necessitate the use of a gearbox, good shaft sealing and strong rotating parts [47]. Nonetheless, volumetric expanders possess high weight, which results in high backpressure. 2.2 Organic Rankine Cycles Recently, technologies forrecovering wasted heat in ICEs have been studied intensively. According to the open literature [48]–[51], the common technologies in WHRinclude ORC, TEG and TC. However, the deep investigation of TEG and TC is beyond the scope of this thesis. The ORC system is regarded as the candidate with the most potential in terms of generating electricity from low- to medium-heat sources for its simplicity and the availability of its components [52]. It is also the most implemented system [53]. ORC is a Clausius–Rankine cycle but with an organic fluid instead of steam. It has higher thermal efficiency and net power than the steam Rankine cycle. It can follow the heat source to be cooled better than water at the same boilingPDF Image | Automotive Radial Turbine Expander Design WHR
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