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18 refrigerants) instead of water. Organic fluids exhibit unique advantages over water or steam [75]because they are better adapted to low heat source temperatures than water, enabling ORC systems to efficiently produce shaftwork from medium temperature heat sources of up to 370 °C [76]. Compared to conventional Rankine cycles, a smaller plant size will be produced when organic fluids are used because of their high density. The higher the density is, the lower the volumetric flow rateis and, subsequently, the smaller the component size becomes. Steam can be applied in applications where heat source temperatures are very high without the fear of thermal decomposition due to its thermal stability [48]. By contrast, organic fluids can be used in low temperature heat sources because of their low normal boiling point, which enables them to evaporate and recover thermal energy from low-grade heat sources better than steam. Statistical investigations indicate that low-grade waste heat accounts for 50% or more of the total heat generated inindustry [76]. Additionally, more advantages can be exhibited by the ORC over conventional Rankine cycles, such as a simple control system and a cheap and simple turbine [77]. Low sound speed is another characteristic of organic fluids. Thus, this speed is reached faster in an ORC than in a steam cycle and constitutes an important limitation because high Mach numbers are related to the high irreversibility properties thatresult in low turbine efficiencies [77]. The selection of working fluid is determined by the application and the waste heat level [78]. Based on the slope of the saturation vapour line,as shown inFigure 2-2, working fluids can be classified into three groups: wet, dry and isentropic. Dry and isentropic fluids have enormous advantages for turbo-machinery expanders becausethey leave the expander as superheated vapour and eliminate the corrosion that results from liquid droplets that impinge onthe turbine blades during the expansion [79]. Another advantage is that overheating the vapour before entering the expander is not required, which meansa small and cheap heat exchanger can be used [80]. Moreover, asuperheated apparatus is not requiredwhen using dry and isentropic fluids [81]. However, if the fluid is too dry, the expanded vapour will leave the turbine with substantial superheat, which is a waste and adds to the coolingPDF Image | Automotive Radial Turbine Expander Design WHR
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