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20 very steep saturated vapour curves in the T–s diagram have better overall performance in energy conversion efficiencies than dry fluids. The authors also stated that dry fluids generally generate superheated vapour at the turbine exit, which reduces the area of network in the T–s diagram, and a generator may be needed to relieve the cooling load of the condenser. Wang et al. [87] constructed a MATLAB code to investigate the performance of nineworking fluids. Their results showed that R11, R141b, R113 and R123 have slightly higher thermal efficiencies than the others. In terms of safety levels and environmental impacts, the results showed that R245fa and R245ca are the most suitable working fluids for an engine WHR application. Shu et al. [88] investigated the influences of alkanes as working fluids by using the high-temperature exhaust heat recovery of a diesel engine. Cyclohexane showed the best performance, with an improvement of 10% in brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC). However, the authors stated that high flammability and toxicity must be considered when alkane-based working fluids are used, which necessitates good sealing and excellent ventilation. Ringler et al. [65] conducted an experimental test to investigate the results of using a high-temperature source (exhaust gas) and a low- temperature source (engine coolant). The authors concluded that water is a preferable working fluid for a system that uses exhaust gas with a high temperature level heat source (T>300°C), whereas an alcohol (e.g. ethanol) would be the right choice for a low-temperature system. Javanshir et al. [89] studied the performance of a regenerative ORC system using 14 dry fluids. Their results showed that butane,followed by iso-butane and R113, offer the highest specific net work output. In addition, working fluids with high specific heat (𝐶𝑝) produce high specific net work output, while working fluids with high critical temperature produce high thermal efficiency. Dai et al. [90] conducted an experimental test to investigate the thermal stability of hydrofluorocarbons using fluoride ion as an indicator of fluid decomposition. Their results showed that most common hydrofluorocarbons have thermal stability temperatures that are suitable for supercritical ORCs. However, they must be used below the decomposition temperatures to ensure system safety. Similarly, Invernizzi et al. [91] investigated thePDF Image | Automotive Radial Turbine Expander Design WHR
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