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22 gas after treatment system and the engine performance [97]. In a well- designed ORC, the net backpressure can be loweredbecause ofexcessive cooling of the exhaust gas in the evaporator [98]. The combination of the ORC system and the automotive engine also increases the thermal efficiencies of the engine without increasing the exhaust backpressure [99]. Another main drawback of TC technology is the increase in pumping losses due the existence of the extra turbine. Mechanical TC has only beentraditionally applied to large diesel engines because of the complexity of mechanically coupling a high-speed turbine to the engine crankshaft [100]. However, the ORC system is a heat energy recovery method, which means it is a heavier and more expensive system,whereas theTC system is a mechanical energy recovery method, and thus cheaper and lighter. In addition, the implementation of the ORC system requires a complex technological architecture, which makes it an unfavourable solution for a small-scale mobile application [101]. Overall, Rankine cycle can offer substantial gains in fuel economy, potentially in the order of 20%, compared to the established TC[50]. The other WHR technology is TEG,which has three main challenges. First, it exhibits poor efficiency, typically less than 4% [102];second, the radiator is big and the piping is extended to the exhaust manifold [48]; and third, thermoelectric generators are not mature yet, and some efficient materials still need to be manufactured [97]. However, new nano-crystalline or nano- wire thermoelectric materials are currently in the development stage to improve the conversion efficiency of thermoelectric generators [103]. TEG technology is used at high temperatures and only when small amounts of power are needed,whereas ORC is used when a low- to medium-temperature heat source is utilised [104]. Although TEG has a small effect on engine performance and can improve engine power by up to17.9% [105], energy from the gases is lost and causes an increase in pumping losses, which reduces the engine performance [106]. Beside the challenges mentioned above, TEG technology is expensive and exerts an extra load on the cooling system owing to the large temperature difference between the hot and cold surfaces [107]. It is also very time-consuming because the evaluation ofPDF Image | Automotive Radial Turbine Expander Design WHR
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