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140 In recent studies, such as in [248]–[250], CFD has been used extensively to predict turbine performance. CFD is a reliable and powerful tool in analysing the flow within the turbine stage as it presents precise and detailed information about the flow nature at different turbine stagesin which the 1D mean-line is incapable to perform.ANSYS is one of the most powerful CFD tools available in the field. Beside the aforementioned benefits, ANSYS is capable of optimising the geometry of the turbine which results in higher performance, and creating full turbine maps that are beneficial to determine the performance of the turbine at off-design conditions.However, this method will consume time and computer resources. Therefore, predicting the off-design performance using a fast 1D model is a vital part during the design process.CFD, in turn, can be utilised to validate the 1D model and provide the required information about the flow nature through the turbine stage. The output of off-design codes is basically the characteristic curves or performance maps. Subsequently, these maps are used to provide an estimate of turbine efficiency and power output at variable inlet conditions and rotational speeds. In the open literature, a number of off-design codes weredeveloped with air (ideal gas) as the working fluid.Jansen and Qvale[251] presented a performance prediction methodology of radial turbines. Although the results are in agreement with the experiments, the authors stated that this methodology was preferred with pressure ratios of up to 4. In 1969, Dadone and Pandolfi[252] conducted an off-design procedure for small- and large-size turbines. The results were in fairly good agreement with the experiments, except at high expansion ratios and low equivalent speeds where a slight discrepancy was noticed. NASA [253], [254] conducted off-design codes and the results were in good agreement with the experimental results. Other performance prediction procedures, such as those by [233], [255], [256], also exist. However, all the aforementioned methodologies are applicable when ideal gas is used as the working fluid. The thermodynamic properties of high-densityfluids, such as organic fluids, are different from those of ideal gas. For instance, organic fluids have high molecular weight, low boiling points and low speed ofPDF Image | Automotive Radial Turbine Expander Design WHR
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