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INTRODUCTION In the utilisation of waste heat, different methods have been used depending on the size of the turbine and the temperature of the heat source. Typically, below 2 MWe an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) is used to recover the available energy. There are, however, several places where the use of a conventional Rankine cycle would be feasible instead of adding a closed loop ORC power plant with an additional heat exchanger. Such applications include e.g. biomass power plants during low loads, saw mills, and large ships. All of the mentioned applications can offer waste steam which can be utilised by adding a hermetic turbogenerator (Leino et al. 2016) to produce electricity directly from the waste heat steam stream. The design presented by Leino et al. (2016) is composed of a hermetic, water-cooled electric machine using magnetic bearings and a radial outflow turbine (ROT). The designed four-stage turbine is characterised by ultra low aspect ratios (AR) and also by large relative tip clearances. A very limited number of public-access studies are available about radial outflow turbine design and fluid dynamics. Recently, this turbine type has been studied for ORC applications e.g. (Pini et al. 2013, Persico et al. 2013, Casati et al. 2014), and in the 1970s, for solar Rankine applications (Martin & Kolenc 1979). Pini et al. (2013) coupled 1D mean-line code with a genetic algorithm and throughflow solver to design a 1000 kW ROT-ORC. Later, Casati et al. (2014) performed a study for a mini ORC system that employed radial outflow turbines. Their design procedure also coupled a meanline design tool and genetic algorithm. Persico et al. (2013) examined different blade shapes in both axial and radial outlow con- figurations. The axial turbine blades were transferred to a conical plane by conformal mapping. The study indicated that front-loaded converging blade channels in axial configuration generate converging-diverging channels in ROT cascades, and improved performance can be achieved by more regular curvature and loading distribution. The study also concluded that classical axial turbine profile loss correlations over-predict slightly centrifugal cascade losses. This behaviour was connected to the lower growth of rear suction side boundary layer and thus, weaker wakes in radial outflow cascades compared to axial designs. Persico et al. (2015) studied both stator and rotor cascades by including also the rotational effects into their model. The effects of the centrifugal force and diverging shape of the blade channel were found to cause significant changes to the pressure distribution of the rotor blade. The study also provided a detailed analysis of the secondary flow field after the stator which was characterised by strong secondary vortex behaviour. The effect of the ultra-low aspect ratio (h/c < 1) is also studied very limitedly in the literature. Kuno and Sonoda (2004) suggest that the primary cause of the poor performance with the ultra-low AR is the increase of secondary losses. They maintain that the predictions of axial turbine loss correlations, such as those by Kacker and Okapuu (1981), cannot be verified at an AR below unity. This leaves room for speculation whether the secondary losses increase as rapidly as the prediction suggests. If the secondary losses do not develop as predicted, the use of an ultra-low AR may be more feasible than expected. At some ultra-low AR value, the passage vortices can meet at the midspan. A similar as- sumption was also made by Benner et al. (2006a), as they developed their penetration depth correlation, which can be used to evaluate the AR which allows the passage vortex separation lines to meet at the midspan. Sonoda et al. (2008) have presented both an experimental and a numerical analysis on the flow mechanisms of an annular ultra-low AR inlet guide vane. Their flow visualisations gave indications that the typical separation lines do not exist at AR=0.21. 2PDF Image | LOSS GENERATION IN RADIAL OUTFLOW STEAM TURBINE CASCADES
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