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secondary flows and separation [42]. Separation affects the drag and pressure drop and its accurate prediction relies on resolving the velocity gradients normal to the wall. In the viscous sublayer of a turbulent boundary layer, these velocity gradients are very steep and use of inflation layers permits the accurate capture of the near-wall flow behaviour and resolves the viscous sublayer directly (low y+ ~1) [43]. In this study, twenty inflation layers were applied with the transition ratio of 0.5 and a Energies 2019, 12, 2791 6 of 22 growth rate of 1.2. The minimum size and proximity settings were varied to study mesh independence by creating four cases with 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 2.5 million tetrahedral cells in the main volume mesh. Figure 4 illustrates the percentages of deviation from case 4 with the maximum by applying the passage and alignments of 2/52 at the downstream, 2/51 at the upstream and 3/73 at the number of cells (2.5 million), where case 1 denotes the minimum number of cells (0.25 million). It is rotor section. The computational domain contained three parts: duct, rotor upstream domain and the obvious that case 1 obtained the least accurate results in comparison to other cases with over 12% rotor domain. To reduce the computational overhead, an angular section of the geometry including deviation in C . Case 2 provides a maximum deviation of about 6% and the discrepancy of results T three upstream guide vanes and two rotor blades were used instead of the whole geometry as shown in case 3 is practically nil. Therefore, case 3 with a total number of 1 million cells was used for the in Figure 3. The boundary conditions of uniform total pressure at the inlet and uniform static pressure CFD simulations to save time and CPU usage. A schematic of the mesh used in the simulations is at the outlet were considered. Total pressure values from 0.5 kPa to 20 kPa were set at the inlet to shown in Figure 5. It should be noted that the mesh setting was kept constant while the cell number provide a range of non-dimensional flow coefficients from φ = 0.25 to φ = 2.5. The convergence criteria varied by changes applied to the initial geometry in the optimisation study. were set to an RMS residual target of 10−6. Figure 3. Computational domain. Figure 3. Computational domain. The ANSYS meshing program was used to create the mesh for numerical simulations. The size function was set on proximity and curvature to provide greater control over the mesh. Inflation layers were used in the meshing to allow the solver to determine the forces on walls, flow incidence, secondary flows and separation [42]. Separation affects the drag and pressure drop and its accurate prediction relies on resolving the velocity gradients normal to the wall. In the viscous sublayer of a turbulent boundary layer, these velocity gradients are very steep and use of inflation layers permits the accurate capture of the near-wall flow behaviour and resolves the viscous sublayer directly (low y+ ~1) [43]. In this study, twenty inflation layers were applied with the transition ratio of 0.5 and a growth rate of 1.2. The minimum size and proximity settings were varied to study mesh independence by creating four cases with 0.25, 0.5, 1 and 2.5 million tetrahedral cells in the main volume mesh. Figure 4 illustrates the percentages of deviation from case 4 with the maximum number of cells (2.5 million), where case 1 denotes the minimum number of cells (0.25 million). It is obvious that case 1 obtained the least accurate results in comparison to other cases with over 12% deviation in CT. Case 2 provides a maximum deviation of about 6% and the discrepancy of results in case 3 is practically nil. Therefore, case 3 with a total number of 1 million cells was used for the CFD simulations to save time and CPU usage. A schematic of the mesh used in the simulations is shown in Figure 5. It should be noted that the mesh setting was kept constant while the cell number varied by changes applied to the initial geometry in the optimisation study.PDF Image | Unidirectional Radial-Air-Turbine OWC Wave Energy Converters
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