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cell voltage (1.8 V), good reversibility, and expectations of low material costs. However, the demonstration of zinc/bromine has been limited due to material corrosion, dendrite formation and electrical shorting, high self-discharge rates, low energy efficiencies, and short cycle life. RedFlow Ltd. Successfully demonstrated a zinc/bromine RFB unit up to MW size with an energy efficiency of nearly 74% in Australia116. The cell architecture was designed to optimize plating and deplating efficiency of zinc during charging and discharging operations. Derivatives of the zinc/bromine system include other halogens such as zinc/chlorine, which typically have similar performance and issues116. 2.6.1.6.2 Soluble lead acid A soluble form of the lead-acid battery has also been considered116. The charge transfer reactions as written are the same as in a traditional sealed lead-acid battery configuration. Lead-acid batteries do not shuttle the same ion between the negative and positive electrode. That is, Pb2+ is introduced an removed from solution at the negative electrode as lead is dissolved and plated, (2.11) but at the positive electrode, lead ions combine with water to produce lead dioxide and protons, (2.12) As lead ions are produced in the oxidation step at the negative electrode and produced in the reduction step at the positive electrode on discharge with a 1.78 V cell potential and 167 WhKg-1. There is not any a risk of crossover lowering the overall efficiency of the system. As long as the solid forms of lead and lead oxide are maintained at the negative and positive electrodes, circulation of electrolyte can maintain the open circuit potential (OCP) of the battery and allow grater specific cell performance than with sealed or flooded lead-acid cells, assuming minimal weight and volume of the external storage tank. As with other hybrid flow configurations, there are risks associated with maintaining the morphology of the solid phase as material can detach or grow across the separator gap to cause short- circuit problems. 2.6.1.6.3 All iron Similar to the all-vanadium RFB, the all-iron system117,118 involves only a single element, where on one electrode iron (II) goes to iron (III), Eq. (2.1), and on the other plating of iron occurs 31PDF Image | Redox Flow Batteries Vanadium to Earth Quinones
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