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Even with optimal in situ sample environments and appropriately matched probes, limitations in the temporal and spatial resolution of measurements must be overcome. The time scales of importance to carbon capture processes span over 15 orders of magnitude, from sub- picoseconds (10−12 seconds) associated with an absorption event up to the many seconds required for the diffusion of heat and mass through critical systems. Similarly, length scales of interest span orders of magnitude from the atomic scale needed to understand the binding of gas–host with positional precision and compare it with theory, to the millimeter range of porosity in solid adsorbents. Further, it will be particularly important to combine multiple techniques to study a process/material simultaneously, providing multiple dimensions of information under the same conditions on the same sample. Dramatically improved performance from new analytical techniques is required to develop revolutionary carbon capture processes that meet the challenges beyond 2020. Outlined below are examples intended to provide inspiration for the development of new capabilities for developing new carbon capture materials and associated capture processes. X-ray techniques. High intensity x-ray light source–based techniques can provide exquisite insight into atomic arrangements and oxidation states of materials. Hard x-rays (energies of 12 to 120 KeV or 0.10 to 0.01 nm wavelength) penetrate materials nondestructively. X-ray experiments can be conducted in experimental chambers to achieve high temperatures, pressures, and other environmental conditions required for studying carbon capture materials and processes. Less penetrating soft x-rays (energies of 0.12 to 12 KeV or 10 to 0.10 nm wavelength) can be used in conditions that approach realistic environments by introducing large pressure gradients over short distances with skimmers. Many techniques are already available for examining complex and amorphous materials, including x-ray diffraction (XRD), pair distribution function, x-ray absorption fine structure, and others. The source brightness sets the lower limit for spatial and temporal resolution, because it determines the maximum number of particles per unit of time that can be focused in a beam. Current synchrotron XRD measurements can be collected on millisecond timescales with fast detectors and in nanoseconds with streak cameras. Major improvements in x-ray source brightness, spatial and temporal resolution, and detection sensitivity are needed to advance carbon capture science. For example, new ultrafast free-electron lasers are being developed that will allow examination of single events on the femtosecond scale with atomic-level structural and chemical information. Conventional x-ray storage rings can be improved to produce high average brightness for time scales of 1 picosecond and above, and new x-ray sources that provide resolution at the nanometer range are on the near horizon. In addition, new techniques based on x-ray processes, such as imaging (see the sidebar “Viewing the Nanoscale with X rays”), have the potential to provide even more insight into gas capture and release processes that are needed to develop new carbon capture materials. Neutron scattering. Neutron scattering, including diffraction (elastic) and inelastic measurements, offers important and unique capabilities to provide new understanding of molecular-level structure and transport in the complex, multicomponent environments encountered in gas separation processes used to reduce carbon emissions. The sample- penetrating power and light-element sensitivity of neutron scattering has been used to determine the crystallographic locations of absorbed gases in materials. The Fourier 89PDF Image | 2020 Carbon Capture
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