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Technical Summary 21 Table TS.1. Current maturity of CCS system components. An X indicates the highest level of maturity for each component. There are also less mature technologies for most components. CCS component CCS technology Capture Post-combustion X Pre-combustion X Oxyfuel combustion X Industrial separation (natural gas processing, ammonia production) X Transportation Pipeline X Shipping X Geological storage Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Xe Gas or oil fields X Saline formations X Enhanced Coal Bed Methane recovery (ECBM)f X Ocean storage Direct injection (dissolution type) X Direct injection (lake type) X Mineral carbonation Natural silicate minerals X Waste materials X Industrial uses of CO2 X a Research phase means that the basic science is understood, but the technology is currently in the stage of conceptual design or testing at the laboratory or bench scale, and has not been demonstrated in a pilot plant. b Demonstration phase means that the technology has been built and operated at the scale of a pilot plant, but further development is required before the technology is required before the technology is ready for the design and construction of a full-scale system. c Economically feasible under specific conditions means that the technology is well understood and used in selected commercial applications, for instance if there is a favourable tax regime or a niche market, or processing on in the order of 0.1 MtCO2 yr-1, with few (less than 5) replications of the technology. d Mature market means that the technology is now in operation with multiple replications of the technology worldwide. e CO2 injection for EOR is a mature market technology, but when used for CO2 storage, it is only economically feasible under specific conditions. f ECBM is the use of CO2 to enhance the recovery of the methane present in unminable coal beds through the preferential adsorption of CO2 on coal. Unminable coal beds are unlikely to ever be mined, because they are too deep or too thin. If subsequently mined, the stored CO2 would be released. In this context, the availability of CCS in the portfolio of options for reducing greenhouse gas emissions could facilitate the achievement of stabilization goals. Other technological options, which have been examined more extensively in previous IPCC assessments, include: (1) reducing energy demand by increasing the efficiency of energy conversion and/or utilization devices; (2) decarbonizing energy supplies (either by switching to less carbon-intensive fuels (coal to natural gas, for example), and/or by increasing the use of renewable energy sources and/or nuclear energy (each of which, on balance, emit little or no CO2); (3) sequestering CO2 through the enhancement of natural sinks by biological fixation; and (4) reducing non-CO2 greenhouse gases. Model results presented later in this report suggest that use of CCS in conjunction with other measures could significantly reduce the cost of achieving stabilization and would increase flexibility in achieving these reductions . The heavy worldwide reliance on fossil fuels today (approximately 80% of global energy use), the potential for CCS to reduce CO2 emissions over the next century, and the compatibility of CCS systems with current energy infrastructures explain the interest in this technology. Research phase a Demonstration phase b Economically feasible under specific conditions c Mature market dPDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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