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Figure TS.8. Potential leakage routes and remediation techniques for CO2 injected into saline formations. The remediation technique would depend on the potential leakage routes identified in a reservoir (Courtesy CO2CRC). Techniques to remove CO2 from soils and groundwater are also available, but they are likely to be costly. Experience will be needed to demonstrate the effectiveness, and ascertain the costs, of these techniques for use in CO2 storage. Monitoring and verification Monitoring is a very important part of the overall risk management strategy for geological storage projects. Standard procedures or protocols have not been developed yet but they are expected to evolve as technology improves, depending on local risks and regulations. However, it is expected that some parameters such as injection rate and injection well pressure will be measured routinely. Repeated seismic surveys have been shown to be useful for tracking the underground migration of CO2. Newer techniques such as gravity and electrical measurements may also be useful. The sampling of groundwater and the soil between the surface and water table may be useful for directly detecting CO2 leakage. CO2 sensors with alarms can be located at the injection wells for ensuring worker safety and to detect leakage. Surface-based techniques may also be used for detecting and quantifying surface releases. High-quality baseline data improve the Technical Summary 35 reliability and resolution of all measurements and will be essential for detecting small rates of leakage. Since all of these monitoring techniques have been adapted from other applications, they need to be tested and assessed with regard to reliability, resolution and sensitivity in the context of geological storage. All of the existing industrial-scale projects and pilot projects have programmes to develop and test these and other monitoring techniques. Methods also may be necessary or desirable to monitor the amount of CO2 stored underground in the context of emission reporting and monitoring requirements in the UNFCCC (see Section 9). Given the long-term nature of CO2 storage, site monitoring may be required for very long periods. Legal issues At present, few countries have specifically developed legal and regulatory frameworks for onshore CO2 storage. Relevant legislation include petroleum-related legislation, drinking-water legislation and mining regulations. In many cases, there are laws applying to some, if not most, of the issues related to CO2 storage. Specifically, long-term liability issues, such as global issues associated with thePDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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