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36 Technical Summary leakage of CO2 to the atmosphere, as well as local concerns about environmental impact, have not yet been addressed. Monitoring and verification regimes and risks of leakage may play an important role in determining liability, and vice- versa. There are also considerations such as the longevity of institutions, ongoing monitoring and transferability of institutional knowledge. The long-term perspective is essential to a legal framework for CCS as storage times extend over many generations as does the climate change problem. In some countries, notably the US, the property rights of all those affected must be considered in legal terms as pore space is owned by surface property owners. information is given alongside information about other climate change mitigation options, the handful of studies carried out so far indicate that CCS is generally regarded as less favourable than other options, such as improvements in energy efficiency and the use of non-fossil energy sources. Acceptance of CCS, where it occurs, is characterized as “reluctant” rather than “enthusiastic”. In some cases, this reflects the perception that CCS might be required because of a failure to reduce CO2 emissions in other ways. There are indications that geological storage could be viewed favourably if it is adopted in conjunction with more desirable measures. Although public perception is likely to change in the future, the limited research to date indicates that at least two conditions may have to be met before CO2 capture and storage is considered by the public as a credible technology, alongside other better known options: (1) anthropogenic global climate change has to be regarded as a relatively serious problem; (2) there must be acceptance of the need for large reductions in CO2 emissions to reduce the threat of global climate change. Cost of geological storage According to the general principles of customary international law, States can exercise their sovereignty in their territories and could therefore engage in activities such as the storage of CO2 (both geological and ocean) in those areas under their jurisdiction. However, if storage has a transboundary impact, States have the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. Currently, there are several treaties (notably the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, and the London11 and OSPAR12 Conventions) that could apply to the offshore injection of CO2 into marine environments (both into the ocean and the geological sub-seabed). All these treaties have been drafted without specific consideration of CO2 storage. An assessment undertaken by the Jurists and Linguists Group to the OSPAR Convention (relating to the northeast Atlantic region), for example, found that, depending on the method and purpose of injection, CO2 injection into the geological sub- seabed and the ocean could be compatible with the treaty in some cases, such as when the CO2 is transported via a pipeline from land. A similar assessment is now being conducted by Parties to the London Convention. Furthermore, papers by legal commentators have concluded that CO2 captured from an oil or natural gas extraction operation and stored offshore in a geological formation (like the Sleipner operation) would not be considered ‘dumping’ under, and would not therefore be prohibited by, the London Convention. The technologies and equipment used for geological storage are widely used in the oil and gas industries so cost estimates for this option have a relatively high degree of confidence for storage capacity in the lower range of technical potential. However, there is a significant range and variability of costs due to site-specific factors such as onshore versus offshore, reservoir depth and geological characteristics of the storage formation (e.g., permeability and formation thickness). Public perception Assessing public perception of CCS is challenging because of the relatively technical and “remote” nature of this issue at the present time. Results of the very few studies conducted to date about the public perception of CCS indicate that the public is generally not well informed about CCS. If When storage is combined with EOR, ECBM or (potentially) Enhanced Gas Recovery (EGR), the economic value of CO2 can reduce the total cost of CCS. Based on data and oil prices prior to 2003, enhanced oil production for onshore EOR with CO2 storage could yield net benefits of 10–16 US$/tCO2 (37– 59 US$/tC) (including the costs of geological storage). For EGR and ECBM, which are still under development, there is no reliable cost information based on actual experience. In all cases, however, the economic benefit of enhanced production Representative estimates of the cost for storage in saline formations and depleted oil and gas fields are typically between 0.5–8 US$/tCO2 injected. Monitoring costs of 0.1–0.3 US$/tCO2 are additional. The lowest storage costs are for onshore, shallow, high permeability reservoirs, and/or storage sites where wells and infrastructure from existing oil and gas fields may be re-used. 11 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (1972), and its London Protocol (1996), which has not yet entered into force. 12 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic, which was adopted in Paris (1992). OSPAR is an abbreviation of Oslo-Paris.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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