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48 Technical Summary detecting the CO2 plume, but not by measuring ocean surface release to the atmosphere. Experiences from monitoring existing CCS projects are still too limited to serve as a basis for conclusions about the physical leakage rates and associated uncertainties. based and natural gas-based power plants with CO2 capture on the order of several hundred megawatts (or several MtCO2). Demonstration of CO2 capture on this scale is needed to establish the reliability and environmental performance of different types of power systems with capture, to reduce the costs of CCS, and to improve confidence in the cost estimates. In addition, large-scale implementation is needed to obtain better estimates of the costs and performance of CCS in industrial processes, such as the cement and steel industries, that are significant sources of CO2 but have little or no experience with CO2 capture. The Kyoto Protocol creates different units of accounting for greenhouse gas emissions, emissions reductions, and emissions sequestered under different compliance mechanisms. ‘Assigned amount units’ (AAUs) describe emissions commitments and apply to emissions trading, ‘certified emission reductions’ (CERs) are used under the CDM, and ‘emission reduction units’ (ERUs) are employed under JI. To date, international negotiations have provided little guidance about methods for calculating and accounting for project-related CO2 reductions from CCS systems (only CERs or ERUs), and it is therefore uncertain how such reductions will be accommodated under the Kyoto Protocol. Some guidance may be given by the methodologies for biological-sink rules. Moreover, current agreements do not deal with cross-border CCS projects. This is particularly important when dealing with cross-border projects involving CO2 capture in an ‘Annex B’ country that is party to the Kyoto Protocol but stored in a country that is not in Annex B or is not bound by the Protocol. With regard to mineral carbonation technology, a major question is how to exploit the reaction heat in practical designs that can reduce costs and net energy requirements. Experimental facilities at pilot scales are needed to address these gaps. Although methods currently available for national emissions inventories can either accommodate CCS systems or be revised to do so, accounting for stored CO2 raises questions about the acceptance and transfer of responsibility for stored emissions. Such issues may be addressed through national and international political processes. Geographical relationship between the sources and storage opportunities of CO2 An improved picture of the proximity of major CO2 sources to suitable storage sites (of all types), and the establishment of cost curves for the capture, transport and storage of CO2, would facilitate decision-making about large-scale deployment of CCS. In this context, detailed regional assessments are required to evaluate how well large CO2 emission sources (both current and future) match suitable storage options that can store the volumes required. Geological storage capacity and effectiveness There is a need for improved storage capacity estimates at the global, regional and local levels, and for a better understanding of long-term storage, migration and leakage processes. Addressing the latter issue will require an enhanced ability to monitor and verify the behaviour of geologically stored CO2. The implementation of more pilot and demonstration storage projects in a range of geological, geographical and economic settings would be important to improve our understanding of these issues. Impacts of ocean storage Major knowledge gaps that should be filled before the risks and potential for ocean storage can be assessed concern the ecological impact of CO2 in the deep ocean. Studies are needed of the response of biological systems in the deep sea to added CO2, including studies that are longer in duration and larger in scale than those that have been performed until 10. Gaps in knowledge This summary of the gaps in knowledge covers aspects of CCS where increasing knowledge, experience and reducing uncertainty would be important to facilitate decision-making about the large-scale deployment of CCS. Technologies for capture and storage Technologies for the capture of CO2 are relatively well understood today based on industrial experience in a variety of applications. Similarly, there are no major technical or knowledge barriers to the adoption of pipeline transport, or to the adoption of geological storage of captured CO2. However, the integration of capture, transport and storage in full-scale projects is needed to gain the knowledge and experience required for a more widespread deployment of CCS technologies. R&D is also needed to improve knowledge of emerging concepts and enabling technologies for CO2 capture that have the potential to significantly reduce the costs of capture for new and existing facilities. More specifically, there are knowledge gaps relating to large coal- With regard to industrial uses of captured CO2, further study of the net energy and CO2 balance of industrial processes that use the captured CO2 could help to establish a more complete picture of the potential of this option.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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