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58 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage make a substantial contribution to emissions reduction from a particular plant but is restricted to plant where supplies of lower carbon fuels are available. 1.3.3 Increased use of low- and near-zero-carbon energy sources Deep reductions in emissions from stationary sources could be achieved by widespread switching to renewable energy or nuclear power (IPCC, 2001a). The extent to which nuclear power could be applied and the speed at which its use might be increased will be determined by that industry’s ability to address concerns about cost, safety, long-term storage of nuclear wastes, proliferation and terrorism. Its role is therefore likely to be determined more by the political process and public opinion than by technical factors (IPCC, 2001a). There is a wide variety of renewable supplies potentially available: commercial ones include wind, solar, biomass, hydro, geothermal and tidal power, depending on geographic location. Many of them could make significant contributions to electricity generation, as well as to vehicle fuelling and space heating or cooling, thereby displacing fossil fuels (IPCC, 2001a). Many of the renewable sources face constraints related to cost, intermittency of supply, land use and other environmental impacts. Between 1992 and 2002, installed wind power generation capacity grew at a rate of about 30% per year, reaching over 31 GWe by the end of 2002 (Gipe, 2004). Solar electricity generation has increased rapidly (by about 30% per year), achieving 1.1 GWe capacity in 2001, mainly in small- scale installations (World Energy Assessment, 2004). This has occurred because of falling costs as well as promotional policies in some countries. Liquid fuel derived from biomass has also expanded considerably and is attracting the attention of several countries, for example Brazil, due to its declining costs and co-benefits in creation of jobs for rural populations. Biomass used for electricity generation is growing at about 2.5% per annum; capacity had reached 40 GWe in 2001. Biomass used for heat was estimated to have capacity of 210 GWth in 2001. Geothermal energy used for electricity is also growing in both developed and developing countries, with capacity of 3 GWe in 2001 (World Energy Assessment, 2004). There are therefore many options which could make deep reductions by substituting for fossil fuels, although the cost is significant for some and the potential varies from place to place (IPCC, 2001a). 1.3.4 Sequester CO2 through the enhancement of natural, biological sinks Natural sinks for CO2 already play a significant role in determining the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. They may be enhanced to take up carbon from the atmosphere. Examples of natural sinks that might be used for this purpose include forests and soils (IPCC, 2000b). Enhancing these sinks through agricultural and forestry practices could significantly improve their storage capacity but this may be limited by land use practice, and social or environmental factors. Carbon stored biologically already includes large quantities of emitted CO2 but storage may not be permanent. 1.3.5 CO2 capture and storage As explained above, this approach involves capturing CO2 generated by fuel combustion or released from industrial processes, and then storing it away from the atmosphere for a very long time. In the Third Assessment Report (IPCC, 2001a) this option was analyzed on the basis of a few, documented projects (e.g., the Sleipner Vest gas project in Norway, enhanced oil recovery practices in Canada and USA, and enhanced recovery of coal bed methane in New Mexico and Canada). That analysis also discussed the large potential of fossil fuel reserves and resources, as well as the large capacity for CO2 storage in depleted oil and gas fields, deep saline formations, and in the ocean. It also pointed out that CO2 capture and storage is more appropriate for large sources – such as central power stations, refineries, ammonia, and iron and steel plants – than for small, dispersed emission sources. The potential contribution of this technology will be influenced by factors such as the cost relative to other options, the time that CO2 will remain stored, the means of transport to storage sites, environmental concerns, and the acceptability of this approach. The CCS process requires additional fuel and associated CO2 emissions compared with a similar plant without capture. Recently it has been recognized that biomass energy used with CO2 capture and storage (BECS) can yield net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere because the CO2 put into storage comes from biomass which has absorbed CO2 from the atmosphere as it grew (Möllersten et al., 2003; Azar et al., 2003). The overall effect is referred to as ‘negative net emissions’. BECS is a new concept that has received little analysis in technical literature and policy discussions to date. 1.3.6 Potential for reducing CO2 emissions It has been determined (IPCC, 2001a) that the worldwide potential for GHG emission reduction by the use of technological options such as those described above amounts to between 6,950 and 9,500 MtCO2 per year (1,900 to 2,600 MtC per year) by 2010, equivalent to about 25 to 40% of global emissions respectively. The potential rises to 13,200 to 18,500 MtCO2 per year (3,600 to 5,050 MtC per year) by 2020. The evidence on which these estimates are based is extensive but has several limitations: for instance, the data used comes from the 1990s and additional new technologies have since emerged. In addition, no comprehensive worldwide study of technological and economic potential has yet been performed; regional and national studies have generally had different scopes and made different assumptions about key parameters (IPCC, 2001a). The Third Assessment Report found that the option for reducing emissions with most potential in the short term (up to 2020) was energy efficiency improvement while the near-term potential for CO2 capture and storage was considered modest,PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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