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Chapter 1: Introduction 63 Figure 1.5 System components inside the boundary of Figure 1.4 for the case of a power plant with CO capture and storage. Solid arrows The construction of any large plant will generate issues relating to environmental impact, which is why impact analyses are required in many countries before the approval of such projects. There will probably be a requirement for gaining a permit for the work. Chapters 3 to 7 discuss in more detail the environmental issues and impacts associated with CO2 capture, transport and storage. At a power plant, the impact will depend largely on the type of capture system employed and the extra energy required, with the latter increasing the flows of fuel and chemical reagents and some of the emissions associated with generating a megawatt hour of electricity. The construction and operation of CO2 pipelines will have a similar impact on the environment to that of the more familiar natural gas pipelines. The large-scale transportation and storage of CO2 could also be a potential hazard, if significant amounts were to escape (see Annex I). 2 denote mass flows while dashed lines denote energy flows. The magnitude of each flow depends upon the type and design of each sub-system, so only some of the flows will be present or significant in any particular case. To compare a plant with CCS to another system with a similar product, for example a renewables-based power plant, a broader system boundary may have to be used. The different storage options may involve different obligations in terms of monitoring and liability. The monitoring of CO2 flows will take place in all parts of the system for reasons of process control. It will also be necessary to monitor the systems to ensure that storage is safe and secure, to provide data for national inventories and to provide a basis for CO2 emissions trading. used in this report and it is consistent with the treatment of environmental implications described above. In developing monitoring strategies, especially for reasons of regulatory compliance and verification, a key question is how long the monitoring must continue; clearly, monitoring will be needed throughout the injection phase but the frequency and extent of monitoring after injection has been completed still needs to be determined, and the organization(s) responsible for monitoring in the long term will have to be identified. In addition, when CO2 is used, for example, in enhanced oil recovery, it will be necessary to establish the net amount of CO2 stored. The extent to which the guidelines for reporting emissions already developed by IPCC need to be adapted for this new mitigation option is discussed in Chapter 9. Expressing the cost of mitigation in terms of US$/tCO2 avoided is also the approach used when considering mitigation options for a collection of plants (such as a national electricity system). This approach is typically found in integrated assessment modelling for policy-related purposes (see Chapter 8). The costs calculated in this way should not be compared with the cost of CO2-avoided calculated for an individual power plant of a particular design as described above because the base case will not be the same. However, because the term ‘avoided’ is used in both cases, there can be misunderstanding if a clear distinction is not made. 1.5.4 Other cost and environmental impact issues Most of the published studies of specific projects look at particular CO2 sources and particular storage reservoirs. They are necessarily based on the costs for particular types of plants, so that the quantities of CO2 involved are typically only a few million tonnes per year. Although these are realistic quantities for the first projects of this kind, they fail to reflect the potential economies of scale which are likely if or when this technology is widely used for mitigation of climate change, which would result in the capture, transport and storage of much greater quantities of CO2. As a consequence of this greater use, reductions can be expected in costs as a result of both economies of scale and increased experience with the manufacture and operation of most stages of the CCS system. This will take place over a period of several decades. Such effects of ‘learning’ have been seen in many technologies, including energy technologies, although historically observed rates of improvement and cost reduction are quite variable and have not been accurately predicted for any specific technology (McDonald and Schrattenholzer, 2001). In order to help understand the nature of the risks, a distinction may usefully be drawn between the slow seepage of CO2 and potentially hazardous, larger and unintended releases caused by a rapid failure of some part of the system (see Annex I for information about the dangers of CO2 in certain circumstances). CO2 disperses readily in turbulent air but seepage from stores under land might have noticeable effects on local ecosystems depending on the amount released and the size of the area affected. In the sea, marine currents would quickly disperse any CO2 dissolved in seawater. CO2 seeping from a storage reservoir may intercept shallow aquifers or surface water bodies; if these are sources of drinking water, there could be direct consequences for human activity. There is considerable uncertainty about the potential local ecosystem damage that could arise from seepage of CO2 from underground reservoirs: small seepages may produce no detectable impact but it is known that relatively large releases from natural CO2 reservoirs can inflict measurable damage (Sorey et al., 1996). However, if the cumulative amount released from purposeful storage was significant, this could have an impact on the climate. In that case, national inventories would need to takePDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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