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78 IPCC Special Report on Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage as a fuel in the power sector is currently limited. Fuel selection in the industrial sector is largely sector-specific. For example, the use of blast furnaces dominates primary steel production in the iron and steel sector, which primarily uses coal and coke (IEA GHG, 2000b; IPCC, 2001). In the refining and chemical sectors, oil and gas are the primary fuels. For industries like cement manufacture, all fossil fuels are used, with coal dominating in areas like the USA, China and India (IEA GHG, 1999), and oil and gas in countries like Mexico (Sheinbaum and Ozawa, 1998). However, the current trend in European cement manufacture is to use non-fossil fuels: these consist principally of wastes like tyres, sewage sludge and chemical-waste mixtures (IEA GHG, 1999). In global terms, biomass is not usually a significant fuel source in the large manufacturing industries. However, in certain regions of the world, like Scandinavia and Brazil, it is acknowledged that biomass use can be significant (Möllersten et al., 2003). To reduce the CO2 emissions from the power and industry sectors through the use of CO2 capture and storage, it is important to understand where these emissions arise and what their geographical relationship is with respect to potential storage opportunities (Gale, 2002). If there is a good geographical relationship between the large stationary emission sources and potential geological storage sites then it is possible that a significant proportion of the emissions from these sources can be reduced using CO2 capture and storage. If, however, they are not well matched geographically, then there will be implications for the length and size of the transmission infrastructure that is required, and this could impact significantly on the cost of CO2 capture and storage, and on the potential to achieve deep reductions in global CO2 emissions. It may be the case that there are regions of the world that have greater potential for the application of CO2 capture and storage than others given their source/storage opportunity relationship. Understanding the regional differences will be an important factor in assessing how much of an impact CO2 capture and storage can have on global emissions reduction and which of the portfolio of mitigation options is most important in a regional context. Other sectors of the economy, such as the residential and transport sectors, contribute around 30% of global CO2 emissions and also produce a large number of point source emissions. However, the emission volumes from the individual sources in these sectors tend to be small in comparison to those from the power and industry sectors and are much more widely distributed, or even mobile rather than stationary. It is currently not considered to be technically possible to capture emissions from these other small stationary sources, because there are still substantial technical and economic issues that need to be resolved (IPCC, 2001). However, in the future, the use of low-carbon energy carriers, such as electricity or hydrogen produced from fossil fuels, may allow CO2 emissions to be captured from the residential and transport sectors as well. Such fuels would most probably be produced in large centralized plants and would be accompanied by capture and storage of the CO2 co-product. The distributed fuels could then be used for distributed generation in either heaters or fuels cells and in vehicles in the transport sector. In this scenario, power generation and industrial sources would be unaffected but additional point sources would be generated that would also require storage. In the medium to long term therefore, the development and commercial deployment of such technology, combined with an accelerated shift to low- or zero- carbon fuels in the transport sector, could lead to a significant change in the geographical pattern of CO2 emissions compared to that currently observed. 2.2 Characterization of CO2 emission sources This section presents information on the characteristics of the CO2 emission sources. It is considered necessary to review the different CO2 contents and volumes of CO2 from these sources as these factors can influence the technical suitability of these emissions for storage, and the costs of capture and storage. 2.2.1 Present 2.2.1.1 Source types The emission sources considered in this chapter include all large stationary sources (>0.1 MtCO2 yr-1) involving fossil fuel and biomass use. These sources are present in three main areas: fuel combustion activities, industrial processes and natural- gas processing. The largest CO2 emissions by far result from the oxidation of carbon when fossil fuels are burned. These emissions are associated with fossil fuel combustion in power plants, oil refineries and large industrial facilities. For the purposes of this report, large stationary sources are considered to be those emitting over 0.1 MtCO2 yr-1. This threshold was selected because the sources emitting less than 0.1 MtCO2 yr-1 together account for less than 1% of the emissions from all the stationary sources under consideration (see Table 2.1). However, this threshold does not exclude emissions capture at smaller CO2 sources, even though this is more costly and technically challenging. Carbon dioxide not related to combustion is emitted from a variety of industrial production processes which transform materials chemically, physically or biologically. Such processes include: • the use of fuels as feedstocks in petrochemical processes (Chauvel and Lefebvre, 1989; Christensen and Primdahl, 1994); • the use of carbon as a reducing agent in the commercial production of metals from ores (IEA GHG, 2000; IPCC, 2001); • the thermal decomposition (calcination) of limestone and dolomite in cement or lime production (IEA GHG, 1999, IPCC 2001); • the fermentation of biomass (e.g., to convert sugar to alcohol). In some instances these industrial-process emissions are produced in combination with fuel combustion emissions, a typical example being aluminium production (IEA GHG, 2000).PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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