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Chapter 3: Capture of CO2 113 Early opportunities exist for the capture of CO2 emissions from the iron and steel industry, such as: • CO2 recovery from blast furnace gas and recycle of CO-rich Around 85% of ammonia is made by processes in the steam methane reforming group and so a description of the process is useful. Although the processes vary in detail, they all comprise the following steps: top gas to the furnace. A minimum quantity of coke is still required and the blast furnace is fed with a mixture of pure O2 and recycled top gas. The furnace is, in effect, converted from air firing to oxy-fuel firing with CO2 capture (see Section 3.4). This would recover 70% of the CO2 currently emitted from an integrated steel plant (Dongke et al., 1988). It would be feasible to retrofit existing blast furnaces with this process. 1. Purification of the feed; 2. Primary steam methane reforming (see Section 3.5.2.1); 3. Secondary reforming, with the addition of air, commonly • Direct reduction of iron ore, using hydrogen derived from a fossil fuel in a pre-combustion capture step (see Section 3.5) (Duarte and Reich, 1998). Instead of the fuel being burnt in the furnace and releasing its CO2 to atmosphere, the fuel would be converted to hydrogen and the CO2 would be captured during that process. The hydrogen would then be used as a reduction agent for the iron ore. Capture rates should be 90-95% according to the design of the pre- combustion capture technique (see Section 3.5). called auto thermal reforming (see Section 3.5.2.3); 4. Shift conversion of CO and H2O to CO2 and H2; 5. Removal of CO2; 6. Methanation (a process that reacts and removes trace CO Other novel process routes for steel making to which CO2 capture can be applied are currently in the research and development phase (Gielen, 2003; IEA, 2004) The removal of CO2 as a pure stream is of interest to this report. A typical modern plant will use the amine solvent process to treat 200,000 Nm3 h-1 of gas from the reformer, to produce 72 tonnes h-1 of concentrated CO2 (Apple, 1997). The amount of CO2 produced in modern plants from natural gas is about 1.27 tCO2/tNH3. Hence, with a world ammonia production of about 100 Mtonnes yr-1, about 127 MtCO2 yr-1 is produced. However, it should be noted that this is not all available for storage, as ammonia plants are frequently combined with urea plants, which are capable of utilizing 70-90% of the CO2. About 0.7 MtCO2 yr-1captured from ammonia plants is currently used for enhanced oil recovery in the United States (Beecy and Kuuskraa, 2005) with a large fraction of the injected CO2 being retained underground (see Chapter 5) in these commercial EOR projects. 3.2.6 Status and outlook We have reviewed processes – current and potential - that may be used to separate CO2 in the course of producing another product. One of these processes, natural gas sweetening, is already being used in two industrial plants to capture and store about 2 MtCO2 yr-1 for the purpose of climate change mitigation. In the case of ammonia production, pure CO2 is already being separated. Over 7 MtCO2 yr-1 captured from both natural gas sweetening and ammonia plants is currently being used in enhanced oil recovery with some storage (see also Chapter 5) of the injected CO2 in these commercial EOR projects. Several potential processes for CO2 capture in steel and cement production exist, but none have yet been applied. Although the total amount of CO2 that may be captured from these industrial processes is insignificant in terms of the scale of the climate change challenge, significance may arise in that their use could serve as early examples of solutions that can be applied on larger scale elsewhere. 3.3 Post-combustion capture systems 3.3.1 Introduction Current anthropogenic CO2 emissions from stationary sources come mostly from combustion systems such as power plants, 3.2.4 Cement production Emissions of CO2 from the cement industry account for 6% of the total emissions of CO2 from stationary sources (see Chapter 2). Cement production requires large quantities of fuel to drive the high temperature, energy-intensive reactions associated with the calcination of the limestone – that is calcium carbonate being converted to calcium oxide with the evolution of CO2. At present, CO2 is not captured from cement plants, but possibilities do exist. The concentration of CO2 in the flue gases is between 15-30% by volume, which is higher than in flue gases from power and heat production (3-15% by volume). So, in principle, the post-combustion technologies for CO2 capture described in Section 3.3 could be applied to cement production plants, but would require the additional generation of steam in a cement plant to regenerate the solvent used to capture CO2. Oxy-fuel combustion capture systems may also become a promising technique to recover CO2 (IEA GHG, 1999). Another emerging option would be the use of calcium sorbents for CO2 capture (see Sections 3.3.3.4 and 3.5.3.5) as calcium carbonate (limestone) is a raw material already used in cement plants. All of these capture techniques could be applied to retrofit, or new plant applications. 3.2.5 Ammonia production CO2 is a byproduct of ammonia (NH3) production (Leites et al., 2003); Two main groups of processes are used: • Steam reforming of light hydrocarbons (natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, naphtha) • Partial oxidation or gasification of heavy hydrocarbons (coal, heavy fuel oil, vacuum residue). and CO2); 7. Ammonia synthesis.PDF Image | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE AND STORAGE
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